AND THE INDIANIZATION OF ARAKAN
Published by
SB. Nangia
A.P.H. Publishing Corporation
4435-36/7, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj
New Delhi 110002
Ph.: 2327 4050
Email: aphbooks@vsnl.net
ISBN: 978-81-313-0405-1
2008
Cover: A collage depicting Shiva as Bhikshatanamurti (deity of ascetics), flanked by
DvarapaJa(s), possibly 5* or 6 ,h century CE.
Printed at
Balaji Offset
Navin Shahdara, Delhi-32
. liUhntuilihlHQ
Con/enh
Acknowledgements oil
Intr od uction ix
1. Background history 1
2. "Buddha's pretended peregrinations" in Arakan - 19
3. The Inscriptions of the Dhanyavati and Vaishali periods 28
4. The Ananda Chandra Inscription 39
5. The dynasties mentioned in the Inscription 48
6. The Court at Vaishali 58
7. Thp Chandra rains 64
8. The City of Vaishali 76
9. Religious beliefs 93
10. Vaishali today 100
11 .The Museum at Mrauk U 109
12. Thp Mahamnni Shrinp and Mnspnm 122
13. Thp Buddhist Council Hill 137
Addendum 149
Bibliography 154
■
UicJznowledqemenis
QVCty deepest gratitude must go to the late Professor E. H. Johnston of
c/ltBalliol College, Oxford, who translated the Sanskrit text of the Ananda
Chandra Inscription, but regrettably did not live to see it published. Research
on ancient Arakan suffered a terrible blow by his untimely death in 1942.
I would like to put on record my grateful thanks to the long-suffering
Colleen Beresford (nee Rustom) and Terence Blackburn for reading the manu-
script, and for their innumerable and critical suggestions, in particular their
prudent advice regarding my forthright views on the neglect of the historic
sites, and the offhand attitude of the people, clergy and the authorities. Colleen
has not only allowed me to quote from her scholarly article "Some Coins of
Arakan", but has also provided me with a rare copy of one of San Tha
Aung's books on Ananda Chandra, together with some important news
cuttings and photographs vital to my work, and for which I am obliged.
The incredibly patient Terence Blackburn has kindly spent long hours
trawling the Internet for information relevant to the present work.
To U Sein Maung U, sometime Conservator of the Department of Archae-
ology, Yangon, for his unfailing help in countless ways, especially in obtaining
crucial information on the excavations at Vaishali which would have been
well beyond my reach.
To U Khin Aung, (Emperor Travels and Tours, Yangon. www.
emperortravelsntours.com), another accommodating friend and incomparable
tour organiser, for arranging my trips to this extraordinary region in 2002
and 2005, and for bravely accompanying me on many a bone-shattering car
ride, and hazardous climbs to jungle-clad hill tops in search of elusive ruins;
I was told later by the driver that these remote locations were particularly
attractive to snakes!
To Dr Pamela Gutman and Dr Michael Mitchiner whose important con-
tributions on the history, religion and culture of this region has been invaluable.
Their works have also helped to clear many an unanswered question on the
period. At this moment in time, they appear to be the only recognized au-
thorities on ancient Arakan.
t T
VII
■
il ItlJMItHitliUlO
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
The obliging staff at the Mrauk U and the Mahamuni Museums also have
my deep gratitude. Despite little financial backup from the relevant authori-
ties, these dedicated souls are undertaking a tremendous amount of work,
much of it in their own free time.
Grateful thanks to Daw Saw Saw Sarpay for some of the illustrations
which appeared in San Tha Aung's The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan.
Any interpretations, forthright or cynical opinions, and errors are, of course,
mine alone.
The drawings and photographs, unless otherwise stated, are by the au-
thor, as are the comments in square brackets.
Noel Francis Singer
2008
vin
LlitmttUhnOJiVdilliG
SJniroduciion
CThis account originally appeared as an article "Sculptures from Vaishali,
O Arakan", in Arts of Asia, July-August 2007, vol. 38, no. 4.
The project initially began in 1999 and by 2006, reams of information had
been gathered, threatening to turn the article into a book. As space in any
magazine is at a premium, this meant that much of the data had to be
grudgingly jettisoned and the text ruthlessly edited.
Nevertheless, I was determined to retrieve the valuable data and reweave
the scattered strands into a book as I felt it was too significant to waste.
Many of the photographs not included in the article were also too valuable
to be consigned to oblivion.
Obviously, since the article was published, 1 have received more pertinent
information which necessitated several changes in the present text.
My interest in ancient Arakan had been simmering since the late 1950s,
when I lived in Myanmar, but was unable to visit the 'legendary' sites of
Mahamuni and Vaishali. In those days, it involved an unpleasant sea voyage,
and once there, transport was practically non existent. Many of the locations,
too, were also in the hands of rebel groups and extremely dangerous. A
virulent form of malaria was rampant — and still is — so intending travellers
beware. Medication, insect repellent and a mosquito net are a must. One
cannot be too careful about the food either, even in the best hotels.
Over forty years later, and now living in the United Kingdom, I finally
achieved my wish. Disappointingly, during each of my two visits, I came
away with almost all my long-held illusions shattered, saddened at the ter-
rible neglect, and the vandalism being perpetrated on ancient religious artefacts
by ignorant and misguided men, in particular the Buddhist clergy. There was
also extreme poverty in the outlying areas. The total lack of interest from the
locals was depressing. Then again, one cannot blame these simple rural folk.
IX
■ liUhlli) lilfli'tUD
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
as finding the means to fill hungry bellies is far more important than expend-
ing energy on the preservation of mouldy old ruins and ancient artefacts.
During my travels in the countryside, it was most distressing to see such
abject poverty.
This account of Vaishali does not pretend to be a scholarly work, and
despite my lack of academic qualifications, I have tried to tell what is to me
a fascinating story which was probably replicated in various parts of ancient
Southeast Asia which came under the influence of the Hindu colonists.
The early history of Arakan from 200 to the 900 CE is far from complete
and still shrouded in what appears to be an impenetrable haze. Not only
have insufficient archaeological investigations been undertaken, it has also
been iveighed down and sabotaged by inaccurate information by native chroni-
clers of a later age.
Some foreign writers, too, have either slavishly repeated these fantasies,
presented their own interpretations, refuted the findings of others, or else,
ignored this early period altogether. For example, ancient Arakan of the
Chandras was omitted by George Coedes in his celebrated The Indianized
States of Southeast Asia.
A number of readers may find it surprising that I have not given due
weight to indigenous accounts of a later date quoted in this work. This is a
deliberate omission on my part owing to their unreliability, permeated as they
are with borrowed historical episodes and myths from Buddhist and Hindu
India. Although these native sources are claimed to be 'ancient', they prob-
ably date from a time after the 14 th century. Above all, they had a tendency
to fabricate, obsessed with a need to present a realm infused with Buddhist
piety of the Theravada School when in fact it was a Mahayana version,
together with Brahmanism, which predominated.
As things stand, an immense amount of research and scientific excava-
tion, unhampered by religious bigotry and political propaganda urgently needs
to be accomplished.
One occasionally hears of this or that foreign institution planning excava-
tions and conservation, but nothing constructive appears to have materialized
in Arakan. Judging by the articles in the Myanmar Historical Commission
Journal, attention seems to be focused on Myanmar proper.
This present work is based on the unique lithic inscription of circa 729
commissioned by Ananda Chandra, ruler of Vaishali, together with other
epigraphic evidence and iconographic. At this point in time, these are
fliinu
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
the only contemporary historical materials available for this early period.
One can but hope that before long a fuller picture will emerge when other
relevant inscriptions have been excavated.
1 ItUmirijitliHlO
Gnap/er Q
er \jne
Background history*
CTTie elongated coastal strip of Arakan (Rakhaing) is situated on the western
kJ part of Burma (Myanmar) proper and extends for almost 360 miles. At its
widest it is roughly 100 miles, while at its narrowest it is only about 25 miles.
On the west is the Bay of Bengal, the region now called Bangladesh is to the
north, and on the east are the high Yoma mountains. Man tended to congre-
gate in the fertile river valleys.
What may conceivably be the earliest representation of this ancient land
can be seen in a map based on the findings of the Greek scholar Erathosthenes
(circa 276-194 BCE), the Chief Librarian of the Great Library at Alexandria.
In it, Hindoi or Indoi (India) and Taprobane (Sri Lanka) are indicated. In-
cluded are the Ganga (Bhagerathi) River and its Delta, together with part of
the curving coastal strip of Arakan. The Yoma range which separate this
region from the country now called Myanmar, is depicted as well. Unfortu-
nately, Arakan is represented as a blank space with no identifiable habitation
sites.
A chart by Strabo (c. 63/64 BCE-24 CE) which appears to have been
based on the above, is almost identical for this region. However, in a later
map derived from those of Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy: flourished 127-145
CE, another inhabitant of Alexandria), the coastline of Arakan has been
updated considerably, and the mountain barrier illustrated in detail. Of par-
ticular interest is the inclusion of the premier port city of Sada together with
another, also on the coast, called Berabonna. The river "Sados Flu" [thought
to be the present Kaladan) is shown.
Another map, also based on Ptolemy's researches and published in 1695,
identified the Yoma mountain chain as the "Meandrus Mons". In this
* All dales not designated BCE are of the Christian Era. Comments in square brackets are by the author
■ liiJKHi) lilfli'tUD
VA1SHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
version, only two cities are named, Sada on the coast, and Triglyphon, situ-
ated further inland and to the north.
An additional chart entitled "Geographiae Antiquae" and dated 1818,
depicted Sada and Berabonna, together with Triglyphon which had now
been relocated to the coast; several versions based on Ptolemy are known to
exist.
In those remote days, it is possible that it was in Bharatavarsha ("The
Realm of the Sons of Bharata", a fabled Indian ruler) that the earliest name
by which Arakan was known was first recorded, and where it achieved
notoriety as "Kala Mukha" (Land of the) Black Faces.'
The Mahaniddesa (circa 200 CE) noted that the Ramayana (The Adventures
of Rama: circa 500 BCE) and the Mahabharata (The Great (battle of the]
Bharatas: circa 400 BCE) identified it by that appellation, and described its
denizens as cannibals, presumably negritos. :
Not surprisingly, the Hindus called them rakshasa (demons) as they be-
lieved them to be the offspring of men and rakshasis (shape-changing female
demons) who through their magical powers could metamorphose themselves
into delectable maidens.- 1
The legend of the rakshasa filtered down the centuries, for the present-day
Rakhaing whose presence was first noted in the region in about the 10 ,h
century CE 4 knew their land as Yetkhapura (Rakshasa pura) or Kingdom and
City of the Demons; although it is unclear where this city-state was situated
or during which period it flourished.
Gerini was sceptical of the derivation of Yetkhapura from the word
"rakshasa", he felt that although Ptolemy in his Geographike Hyphegesis (Guide
to Geography) had populated the littoral .around the Gulf of Martaban with
cannibal tribes, he had not mentioned their existence in Arakan.
"The term Rakhaing can therefore be scarcely connected with the tradition of the
Raksasas occupying at one time the land, and any such pretended connection put
forward is undoubtedly the modern invention of Buddhist monks, anxious to find
some explanation for the name of the country.
Sir Arthur Phayre says that the latter was designated as Rakkha-pura by the
Buddhist missionaries from India; but I should like to hear how far back in antiquity
this name can be traced. It appears in the Mahavamsa [of Sri LankaJ under the form
Rakkhanga at so late a date as A.D. 1592; and in the Ain-i-Akbari at about the same
period under the form Arkung." 5
Uftnfi
BACKGROUND HISTORY
Luce, quoting Ptolemy [who in turn was citing Pomponius Mela (circa 43
CE) ] on the location of ancient Arakan, said:
"Descending the coast south-eastwards from the mouth of the Ganges, he names first
the Airrhadoi (with the port ofBarakoura) [this was presumably in the Chittagong
region]; then the country of Argyre ["Silver Land" i.e. ArakanJ with [the towns
of] Sambra, Sada, Berabonna and Temala [which Gereni believed was Cape
NegraisJ; then a Cape; then the cannibals ofBesynga (thought to be in the region
of the mouth of the Irrawaddy River] in the Sarabak Gulf [most likely the Gulf
of Martaban]."'
These areas were allegedly inhabited by other savage tribes, such as the
Beseidai or Tiladai who lived between India and China, therefore somewhere
in present day Myanmar. However, Luce, when quoting Ptolemy, offered
conflicting descriptions. While on one occasion he defined the people as "big"
of stature and "broad and hairy and broad-faced, white-skinned", further on
they are described as "stunted. 7 The Periplus had originally depicted them as
"pygmies".
Nevertheless, according to Luce "Both Chinese and Greek sources agree in
placing, at the beginning of our era, undersized and white-skinned peoples in
Burma, and the existence of early trade-routes between China and India."*
How reliable is the anecdote concerning the cannibals?
Regarding these man-eating savages, was Ptolemy simply repeating the scare
stories of the geographers before him, and the sensational traveller's tales
which were liable to circulate in ports of the world? After all, it is a well
known fact that humans have a tendency to fabricate, either from sheer
ignorance or pure malice.
Revealingly, a location map in Moore's recent work pinpoints numerous
fortified habitation sites from possibly before 100 CE in the very areas suppos-
edly being terrorized by Ptolemy's cannibals. 9
The cold archaeological and scientific facts are these.
Cave paintings and stone implements said to be over 5,000 years old have
been discovered in the Badalin ("Shining-as-Mercury") Caves in the Shan
States. Older still are the mysterious hunter-gatherers of a prehistoric period
called "Anyathian", from the relatively modern Myanmar word ah-nyar-tha,
meaning a male from the upper part of the country.
iunutUhniiMflitnh
VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
Recent excavations have uncovered hitherto unknown finds from loca-
tions which have been identified as the Neolithic, 'Bronze Age' and the 'Iron
Age'. The Nyaungyan burial site, in particular, has revealed what appear to
be unique 'mother goddess' figures crafted out of thin sheets of bronze; the
identification of these symbols is still ongoing. Grave goods include decorative
ornaments for coffins, polished stone implements, large perforated stone discs
designed for the wrists and chest, glass rings, pottery and bronze artefacts. 10
Almost similar examples from these periods have also been reported in Thai-
land."
It is doubtful if cannibalism was practiced amongst these people who
were certainly not wild savages.
Carbon-dated evidence has revealed that by circa 200 BCE, the Pyu (Piao
or Tircul), possibly one of the earliest civilized ethnic groups, were already
established within their small city-states in central Myanmar.
One must presume that the civilized and the uncivilized existed within
their own territories, with raids and counter raids being undertaken as the
centuries passed. It would appear that the more primitive tribes were finally
pushed further back into the wilderness, for the Pyu and the Mon, each in
their own kingdoms, soon came to dominate the land.
But that is another story.
The first wave of Hindu colonists
To return to what was occurring at the time in ancient Arakan.
In India of the 1" century CE, fuelled by their need for commerce, gold
and silver, the initial wave of Hindu colonists undertaking their samudra yatra
(sea voyages) across the Purva Samudra (Bay of Bengal) began in earnest. 12
These extraordinarily courageous travellers, composed of merchants, ad-
venturers, artisans, Brahmana, members of the ruling elite and, one must
assume, some of their fearless women folk, braved the terrifying and cramped
conditions at sea to seek out strange new worlds such as the fabled
Survanabhumi and Suvarnadvipa, which reputedly contained unimaginable
wealth. Once at their destination, the pioneers founded settlements and over-
came the hostility of the local inhabitants. Some of their elite married into the
families of loc.il tribal chiefs and in time, by their superior knowledge and
skills, came to rule over them.
I litJIOMUiljlilHQ
BACKGROUND HISTORY
It was surprising to learn that even before that early date, many of the
coastal areas and shipping lanes of the Indian Ocean and the Straits of Malacca
were infested by pirates who either killed all on board or sold them into
slavery. This meant that for the prudent ship owners and merchants, precau-
tionary measures had to be taken, and a contingent of archers and spearmen
hired to accompany these voyages. 13
By the 3' d century, the coastal regions of Kala Mukha had been settled,
with the colonists dominating and coexisting warily with the aboriginal tribes.
The Lords of the Solar and Lunar dynasties from far off Bharatavarsha
had indeed arrived.
In the major habitation sites, Sanskrit was the written language for the
ruling classes, and religious beliefs were those current at the time on the
subcontinent.
Dr. Emil Forchhammer, a Swiss Professor of Pali at Rangoon College, and
Superintendent of the newly founded Archaeological Survey [1881] described
this fertile region [which was, and is still infested with the deadly malaria
mosquito {Culicidae)].
"The earliest datvn of the history of Arakan reveals the base of the hills, which divide
the lower course of the Kaladan and Lemro rivers, inhabited by sojourners from India,
governed by chiefs who claim relationship with the rulers of Kapilavastu. Their
subjects are divided into the four castes of the older Hindu communities; the kings
and priests study the three Vedas; the rivers, hills, and cities bear names of Aryan
origin; and the titles assumed by the king and queen regent suggest connection with
the Solar and Lunar dynasties of India/' 1 *
Argyre, the Silver Land
Ptolemy, quoting Pomponius Mela, had identified this part of Eastern India
as Argyre (Silver Land) as he had been told that it contained numerous silver
mines. Its capital was Sada. But since this metal is not found in the region,
later scholars found his description perplexing, neither could the city of Sada
be identified.
Majumdar, too, could not agree with this location for Argyre and felt that
"we might look upon the island of Java as corresponding to Argyre, and
there are several facts which speak in favour of this supposition." 15
Fortunately, in 1978 the mystery was partly explained by Mitchmer, who
said that the reason it bore the epithet Silver Country was that its govern-
i'lllD
VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ABAKAN
ment acted as a mediator for the export of bullion which originated in Nanzhao
(Yunnan) and an area of Myanmar which is now believed to be located in the
present Bawzaing area of the Shan States 16 [the Bawdwin mines are another
location]. This immense stretch of country in the Shan States was variously
under the control of the Pyu kingdoms of Vishnupura (City of Vishnu), Hanlin,
and the Varman and Vikrama dynasties of Sri Kshetra, named after the holy
city of Puri in Kalinga, and sacred to Vaishnavites-
According to Mitchiner, the silver was taken down the Temalos (Irrawaddy
River) to Temala, thought to be near present-day Syriam (Thanlyin), across
the river from Rangoon (Yangon); it was later to become part of the Mon
kingdom of Ramannadesa.
From Temala, the bullion from Nanzhao was shipped to agents in the
eastern kingdoms and to Sada in the Silver Land from where it was dis-
patched to India and beyond. This precious metal attracted the attention of
the Romans, for it is known that sometime during the 2 nd century CE, a small
expedition sailed across the Apara Samudra {Arabian Sea) and the Bay of
Bengal, and managed to travel to Nanzhao by way of the Irrawaddy River
— an incredible and obviously dangerous undertaking.
As to the identity of the capital of Argyre, Ptolemy was told that the
Sanskritic name of the ruling dynasty was Chandra, which his informants,
using the Prakrit parallel, pronounced Chada. Linguistic difficulties meant
that Ptolemy's rendition became Sada, which he also used for the capital. 17
Interestingly, the Mahaniddcsa also referred to the city as Sada, and said
that it was a premier port of call for shipping from Palur in the Ganjam
district of Kalinga (Udra or Orissa) and Tamralipti (Tamluk), on the Hugli
River, about thirty miles southwest of modern Kolkata. 1 *
Gerini, quoting from Ptolemy, said that Sada was identified:
"as the terminus of the sea-passage across the Gangetic Gulf (Bay of Bengal) from
Palttra [in Kalinga], effected in a direct line from west to east, and covering a
distance of 13,000 stadia. It xoas, therefore, the first port touched at in his lime by
ships proceeding from India to the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal, Some ships,
however, took a more northerly route, and touched at the riverine port of Antibole on
the Dhakka or Old Ganges River, before making out for Sada and the Gulf of
Martaban.""
However, Gerini did not agree with Ptolemy's identification and location
of Sada, and was of the opinion that the city was sited at the present port
town of Sandoway (Thandwair, with Ihe classical name of Dvaravati) which
■
BACKGROUND HISTORY
■
is considerably further down the Arakanese coast. He added pertinently that
some of the later Portuguese maps were still calling the port Sedoa.
[Gerini's assumption is credible, for although all the maps based on
Ptolemy's researches show Sada as being situated on the coast, it is in fact
over fifty miles inland. Why would the vessels from India travel laboriously
inland, through winding mangrove creeks, and facing possible attacks by
pirates, when the present port of Sandoway was more accessible?]
The large sea going vessels from India, known as mahanavah, were head-
ing east to other Southeast Asian kingdoms, in particular to Survanabhumi
("Land of Gold"; claimed to be Lower Myanmar and Malaysia), and to
Suvarnadvipa ("Isle of Gold"), which Majumdar identifies as Sumatra, to-
gether with some of the islands in the region. Several interpretations of the
exact location of these fabled lands are current. Another name for this region
was the legendary Chryse, known to Pomonius Mela, Pliny the Elder and
others of an earlier period, and which is now accepted as covering a large
swathe of Southeast Asia.
The second period of Indianisation
The second phase of the Indianisation of Arakan occurred from about the 4 ,h
to the 6 th centuries, by which time the kingdom of the colonists had been well
established. One must also assume that by then, the earlier name of "Sada",
for its capital, had been replaced by "Vaishali"
As a port city, Vaishali was in contact with Samantata (Tippera-Noakhali
region. Southeast Bengladesh), India, Simhaladivipa (Sri Lanka) and other
overseas realms. Relations were strengthened by trade and diplomatic con-
nections and the movements of migrants, pilgrims and itinerant craftsmen.
Nearer home, the Chandra rulers were in communication by land and
water with the Pyu kingdoms across the mountains in the east, and with the
small Mon city states in Ramannadesa.
Collis, who in 1925 quoted his source in good faith, said that the archae-
ologist, San Shwe Bu, had provided him with a translation from an old
manuscript called "The True Chronicle of the Great Image" [the Mahamuni
bronze which was located at the earlier capital of Dhanyavati].
"The Chandra kings were upholders of Buddhism, guarding and glorifying the
Mahamunni [sic] shrine; their territory extended as far north as Chittagong" [then
known as Chatigrama]. "The conclusion to be drawn from this MS is that Wesali
I
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
(Vaishali] was an easterly Hindu kingdom of Bengal, following the Mahayanist form
of Buddhism and that both government and people were Indian as the Mongolian
influx had not yet occurred." 30
The uncertainty over the date for the founding of Vaishali
Even though the capital of the Chandras is now accepted as Vaishali, there
is as yet no coeval epigraphic evidence confirming it, neither is the term by
which they identified their kingdom known. Western scholars have based
their identification on the word "Waythali" (Vaishali), a corrupt later version
in use by the present Rakhaing and the Myanmar peoples who are incapable
of pronouncing the character "v".
If it was indeed Vaishali, Dr Johnston, an epigraphist of Balliol College,
Oxford, who translated the Sanskrit inscription (circa 729) of Ananda
Chandra, Maharaja of Vaishali, felt that the region had come under the
control of the descendents of the [Licchavi] ruling family from Vaishali, Bihar,
when they fled from the ascendancy of the Imperial Guptas (circa 300-
467). 314 "
Johnston's theory is plausible, as the time scale corresponds with the sec-
ond surge of Hindu migration into Southeast Asia, and the creation of the
new Vaishali, when the Licchavi, under Dven Chandra (circa 370-425) estab-
lished a Chandra vamsa (Lunar dynasty); previously the Licchavi claimed to
be of the Surya vamsa (Solar dynasty).
However, at the present time, different opinions are current amongst schol-
ars as to the identity of the city which Dven Chandra inaugurated. While
some believe that it was the older Dhanyavati (meaning "rich as a source for
food grains" because of the fertility of the earth), about sixteen miles to the
north, others are of the opinion that it was Vaishali.
If we assume that it was the latter, at the location [Latitude 20° 40' 05"
North, Longitude 93° 90' East] which was to become Vaishali, there was
probably in existence a sizable number of colonists from the subcontinent,
making it an ideal choice for the high-born Licchavi.
Then again, if it was Dhanyavati, it is unclear if the Licchavi replaced the
earlier ruling house. This was an important site containing the Mahamuni
Shrine, with its reputedly miraculous 'living' bronze image of Buddha. How-
ever, apart from legendry accounts invented centuries later, there is as yet no
evidence of a contemporary nature to suggest that the shrine was already in
existence when the Licchavi established the spot as their new capital.
8
iiniiflifHctafttia
BACKGROUND HISTORY
As Sada was mentioned in the Mahaniddesa, followed by Mitchiner's in-
terpretation of Ptolemy's 2 nd century rendition of "Chandra", perhaps the
dynastic name of this older dynasty, too, was Chandra?
Little is known of these early raja (s) who ruled at Dhanyavati, apart from
the fabricated accounts in later native chronicles which date this dynasty
from 600 BCE to 400 CE. Htun Shwe Kaing has gone further and pushed the
date for "the First Dhanyavati dynasty" to 3000 BCE, which one must accept
as pure wishful thinking. 23
In circa 729 CE, the inscription set by Ananda Chandra provided a list of
the long line of past rulers, and the major events which occurred during their
time of sovereignty. It stated that as the region was unstable, the monarch
Dven Chandra had to subdue no less than 101 kings, presumably local tribal
chiefs {this is a common symbolic number used to describe the many races of
man, implying that as the conqueror of so many, he was entitled to the status
of supreme ruler or Emperor].
Dven Chandra then laid out a nngaram (royal city), 24 ovoid in plan and
measuring 2.7 square miles in area. It was protected by fortifications and
moats.
If this was the present site of Vaishali, one will have to speculate that
either for sentimental reasons, or on seeing the topography with its vast
fertile lands which resembled the locality of their former home, the Licchavi
decided to name their new city after it. Vaishali is a derivation of Visala
meaning broad, extensive, spacious, magnificent. It was also the name of
Visala, the founder of the dynasty, who was the son of Trinabundu of the
Dcsavaku dynasty, possibly a semi-mythical ruler.
The original Vaishali in Bihar, described as "a small but powerful republic
governed by nobles of the Vriji family", was one of the six great cities of India
visited by Buddha. 25 It is situated about 27 miles north of Pataliputra (Patna)
and contains the Licchavi Relic stupa and the Abhishek Pushkarini or Coro-
nation Pond of the later Vaishali rulers.
Fa-Hsien and Xuanzang, the Chinese pilgrims who were in India between
401-410 and 629-645 respectively, travelled to the older "Fei-she-li", and
reported that although the region was very fertile, this celebrated site was
already in ruins.
Whether it was Dhanyavati or Vaishali, centuries later in Arakan, the
Ananda Chandra Inscription of 729 [henceforth to be known simply as the
Inscription] enthused that because of its magnificence the newly built but
■
VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
unnamed capital, "saundarya hasinam" (laughed at) the grandeur of Amaravati,
the Vedic deity Indra's fabulous capital in Svarga ("Light of Paradise"). 26 * 27
Gutman has suggested that the city built by Dven Chandra was not Vaishali
but Dhanyavati, and dated the former to the 6 th century; this was based on
surviving archaeological evidence such as sculptures. 78 Earlier, she had sug-
gested the 7 th century. 29
If this is the case, it had to be the splendid city of Dhanyavati which
supposedly expressed amusement at the opulence of Indra's Svarga.
On the other hand, if Dhanyavati had been constructed by Dven Chandra
sometime between circa 370-425, who then was responsible for relocating the
capital to a site named Vaishali?
At the moment, no one appears to agree and each expert offers a bewil-
dering array of dates and theories.
Vaishali founded in circa 2 nd century BCE
In 1972, Aung Thaw, Director of Archaeology, recorded that "a Hinduised
dynasty was ruling at Vaisali (Wethali) about the 2 nd century B.C." 30
Vaishali built in 327 CE
The writers Myar Aung and Shwe Zan have claimed that Vaishali was built
in 327 by Maha Taing Sandra, who is not listed in the Inscription, and that
this was the year in which the great Pharagri image was commissioned and
installed at the capital at the instigation of his consort Thupaba Devi (see
Chapter Eleven). 31 Conversely, the late San Tha Aung, insisted that the year
was 370.
Vaishali established early 6 ,h century
If the first half of the 6 th century has been recommended by Gutman for its
foundation, there were only two maharaja{s) listed in the Inscription for this
period. They were Bhuti Chandra (circa 496-520) and Niti Chandra (circa
520-575).
In all probability, it was the latter, for the Inscription indicated that he
reigned for fifty-five years. There was also peace in the realm, and more
importantly, the economy appeared to have been strong [this may be attested
10
; I.Uhl nnivfliilin
BACKGROUND HISTORY
by the fact that the coins issued by him are the most common in the Chandra
series to have survived].
But that was all.
There is no mention in the Inscription of a new capital being built during
his reign.
The mystery is, why was such a vitally important subject as the relocation
of the capital not confirmed and identified in the text? Although it recorded
the construction of a city, frustratingly it failed to name or date the event.
To confuse matters further, the later Rakhaing chronicles have also claimed
a date for the establishment of Vaishali — in fact a baffling number.
To quote but a few.
One source 32 asserted that Vaishali was built by the monarch Vasudeva
[not listed in the Inscription]. Another said that Vasudeva and his nine broth-
ers took over old Arakan and established themselves at Dvaravati (now
Thandwair, also known as Sandoway during British colonial times; the city
reputedly had a habit of floating off into the air and had to be tethered to the
ground by a massive chain].
Vasudeva is also another name for the god Krishna, who is the eighth
manifestation of Vishnu.
Providentially, we have Gutman's version regarding this mysterious
Vasudeva. She explains that he was the focus of the Bhagavata cult [con-
nected with the worship of Vishnu or Krishna] adopted by the Gupta monarchs,
which the Chandra rulers felt obliged to imitate, doubtless to bolster their self
importance."
According to Dallapiccola, in India the cult later amalgamated with the
Vaishnava faction of the Pancharatras."
One must assume that somehow this information filtered down through
the centuries to later Rakhaing chroniclers who were totally unaware of its
significance, and presumed that Vasudeva had to be the name of a very
important monarch, and was therefore the ideal candidate for the founder of
Vaishali.
11
■
i tiumiiHitiitno
VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
Vaishali constructed in 788 CE
An indication of how these supposedly ancient Rakhaing chronicles could get
their facts terribly wrong is revealed by Collis, who was equally ignorant of
the piece of information he was quoting.
"The area now known as north Arakan has been for many years before the 8 ,k century
the seat of Hindu dynasties; in 788 A.D., a new dynasty, known as the Chandras,
founded the city of Wesali [the dynasty then] came to an end in 957 A.D., being
overwhelmed by a Mongolian invasion."**
[The date could not possibly be 788, for the Chandra dynasty had ended
by circa 600. Yet, according to Kyi Khin, who was doubtless quoting one of
the later Rakhaing chronicles, it was Maha Tain Sandara who rebuilt the old
[and presumably abandoned] city of Vaishali in 788, and that it was de-
stroyed in 957. 36
Vaishali built in 790 CE
Forchhammer, quoting the Sappadanapakarana (Sarvasthanaprakarana), claimed
to be "an ancient Arakanese manuscript of great value" added another twist to
the story;
"In the year 152 B.E [Buddhist Era] (A.D. 790) the new city of Vesali [sic] was
founded by the King Mahataingcandra on the site where the old town had stood." 37
As the chronicle did not identify this "old town", Dhanyavati is out of the
question as it is nearly sixteen miles to the north. Another source, however,
said that this "old town" was Ramavati ("The City of Rama").
Vaishali created in 887 CE
Aung Tha U, who failed to reveal his source, made the surprising claim that
Vaishali was founded by Maha Sandra in 887 CE. M He was obviously not
aware that the oldest section of the Inscription [the text on the east face of
the pillar] was already in existence by the reigns of either Bhumi Chandra
(circa 489-496) or Bhuti Chandra (circa 496-520) wi Vaishali itself, and that
by 887, the Chandra dynasty had long ceased to exist.
The by now bemused and mystified reader will be relieved to learn that
at this point in time all theories are tentative. Until archaeological and scien-
tific investigations have been conducted thoroughly, and centuries of
12
flSnfi
BACKGROUND HISTORY
#
entrenched and bewildering myths created by later native chroniclers which
have influenced some naive foreign scholars, eradicated.
It will probably be many years before a competent archaeologist or histo-
rian, will be able to unravel this mystery and present an acceptable account
of this period.
Regarding the founding of the earlier Dhanyavati, as Gutman has sug-
gested a period sometime between 370-425, one must also presume that this
should be accepted as the date for the construction of the Mahamuni Shrine
on Sirigutta hill, thereby causing the chroniclers, invariably monks of a later
age, to spin in their graves.
These pious men have stated, and with great authority, that the dedica-
tion of the shrine and its bronze icon was attended by none other than
Buddha himself, who 'activated' the icon by breathing 'life' into it, and named
it the Candasara image.
One is informed that on that fabulous day when the bronze image was
created, among the distinguished guests were none other than Indra and
Visvakarman (Tvashtri), the celestial architect and creator of Indra's Swarga,
who was also responsible for casting the image, and for the construction of
the shrine to house it.
This preposterous claim is still accepted by the entire country.
As supernatural beings, if Indra and Visvakarman were endowed with
such impressive magical powers, why was there a need to actually cast a
bronze image? Could it not have been magicked out of thin air?
Then again, why were Hindu gods attending and taking part in a Bud-
dhist ceremony?
If as it is now claimed that this centre of worship was of great importance
at the time, why was it not mentioned in the Inscription?
The Rakhaing who are of Sino-Tibetan stock, did not arrive at their present
homeland from Western China until about the 10* century CE. However,
their quasi-historical records which are secondary material compiled centu-
ries later, and liberally sprinkled with anachronisms, now maintain that they
have been in their country since 5000 BCE. They also claim, quite seriously,
the early Indian dynasties of Dhanyavati and Veshali as their own — peopled
by the Rakhaing race. 39
13
ihUhiHuiiailnfi
Gnapier L7our
The Ananda Chandra Inscription
CThe contents of all the previous records pale in comparison to that of the
the dedicatory records include a date, the names on the coins and the signifi-
cant list of the rulers in the Inscription have helped scholars to identify the
royal donors.
Had it not been for Johnston and the Indian epigraphists before him, the
contents of the Inscription which remained inaccessible for well over a thou-
sand years, would never have been known. Although the Rakhaihg chroniclers,
monks and laymen alike, were incapable of deciphering the Sanskrit text,
they were not above providing fictitious names and accounts of the rulers of
this and other ancient sites.
While the Inscription, which consists of sixty-five verses [seventy-one and
a half lines] has provided important material regarding dates and locations,
its compiler could also be infuriatingly terse at times. Neither the name of the
kingdom or the two premier city sites of Dhanyavati and Vaishali are men-
tioned; it simply states that a nagaram (royal city) had been established.
Since nothing comparable to this eleven foot high monolith exists in
Myanmar, during my visits in 2002 and 2005, I was distressed to find it
neglected and the text flaking. Though it is four sided, only three faces are
inscribed in a Nagari script which is allied to those of North-Eastern India
and Vanga (Bengal).
As the monolith is cemented to the floor, each of the four panels has been
designated according to the cardinal direction in which it faces; this is for
easy reference.
39
iiitftumhi HiMflilnh
VA1SHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
And now for some deduction games on the age of the inscription on each
panel.
The panel on the east face
While Johnston merely said that the script on the eastern face was the ear-
liest,' San Tha Aung felt that it could be dated to sometime between 300 to
600 CE. 2 Alternatively, Shwe Zan was less vague and claimed that the record
could be credited to either Bhumi Chandra (circa 489-496) or Bhuti Chandra
(circa 496-520). 3 Gutman has also suggested that it was similar to the type of
script used in Bengal during the early sixth century. 4
The panel on the north face
Although Johnston suggested a date for the type of script on the north panel
he mentioned that several smaller inscriptions in Bengali characters, had been
added during the tenth century. Gutman, on the other hand, felt that the
principal text in this section was of the mid eleventh century. 5 Then again,
Kyi Khin in his Report, indicated that the first four lines on the north panel
were of the 7* 1 century, and that the short inscriptions at the base belonged
to the 9 ,n century. 6
Regrettably, the contents of the eastern and northern faces have not yet
been fully investigated, and the situation has reached a critical point as the
surfaces are fast deteriorating. Half-hearted plans to have the texts studied
and translated have not materialized.
[The profound apathy which appears to grip most civil servants in the
relevant departments may be one of the reasons. One must also assume that
there are no competent epigraphists available to attempt unravelling the in-
scriptions. By all accounts, resources are now focused on the archaeology in
Myanmar proper, with early Arakan and old Mon thrust to one side].
The panel on the west face
Fortunately, this segment which is reasonably preserved, is a prasasti (record
of a ruler's qualities and achievements) of Ananda Chandra and his pred-
ecessors, including some earlier monarchs who are thought to be legendary.
Johnston dated the type of script to the sixth or early seventh century, 7 while
Gutman felt that it was from the earlier part of the eighth century. 8
40
flit 110
THE ANANDA CHANDRA INSCRIPTION
This priceless document not only lists the personalities of each monarch,
but also some of the major events of every reign, and is the focus of this
work. 9
Since the pillar which is now sited at the Shitthaung pagoda [the stupa
which [allegedly] contains eighty thousand Buddha images], the Inscription
has variously been called either the Shitthaung Pillar, the Mrohaung [another
name for the town of Mrauk U] Inscription, or the Ananda Chandra Inscrip-
tion.
As the earliest texts on the eastern panel may be attributed to either
Bhumi or Bhuti Chandra, the pillar should in theory be named after one of
them. However, for our present purpose, it will henceforth be referred to as
the Inscription, since we will be concerned primarily with the period of Ananda
Chandra's reign.
So far, the early history of this inscription pillar is a blank.
It was first mentioned in the Rakhaing chronicles when it was conveyed
from Vaishali on the orders of king Mong Ba Gree (reigned 1531-1553) to his
Shitthaung pagoda at Mrauk U, nine miles to the south. 10 Various dates are
given for this event, such as 1534, 1535 and 1536."' ,M »
The heavy pillar, together with its supplementary fixtures, were doubtless
placed on specially constructed carts. Another source said that the king's
elephant was used to carry the monolith to Mrauk U; surely a near impossible
task for an animal to undertake, trudging for nine miles with this immense
load?" The north entrance of the pagoda then became the Inscription's new
home. On the death of Mong Ba Gree in 1553, the pillar was neglected, and
thereafter for over four centuries abandoned and finally used as a gatepost.
[When more progressive times prevail, the inscription pillar should be
returned to its original site in Vaishali. As things stand, at this moment in
time, this is too much to hope for].
But this is no ordinary epigraphic record, it was once part of a ceremonial
tarana (portal) bristling with mystical connotations. The components forming
this doorway were the pillar itself, a lintel, an octagonal column and a swing-
ing gate.
With regard to the age of the first three objects, Gutman's interpretation
appears to be the most reliable. She has suggested that as the material used
was red sandstone, she proposed a date anterior to the middle of the seventh
century. Evidently, after this date its use fell out of favour in Arakan. 15
41
; iiiiitj
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
Next on the throne was Dharma Sura (possibly named after the monarch
of the Survasenas whose capital was Mathura on the Yumuna River; Sura
was also the name of a king of the Chandra vamsa (Lunar Race). Dharma Sura
reigned circa 636- 649. As his first name Dharma suggests, he appears to
have been of a religious inclination. During his reign the realm enjoyed pros-
perity. He ruled for thirteen years, and being a devout monarch he entered
Svarga.
This brief dynasty which held sway for forty-nine years may have ended
with Dharma Sura.
The interregnum
It is a tremendous shame that apart from the document relating to Ananda
Chandra, the rest of the texts engraved on various parts of the monolith have
not been translated.
Johnston felt that many of the smaller inscriptions contained lists of names,
which he assumed were of local lords, two of which he could decipher. These
were the mysterious Prabha Chandra and Bhupalah Sri Candakeyura
Varmrna.^
Perhaps, one day, all will be revealed as to who these personages were,
but one should not hold one's breath.
The Sri Dharmaraj-andaja vamsa (dynasty) (circa 649-729).
A new and powerful ruling family then took command of the situation in the
kingdom.
Johnston felt the above dynastic name implied that their ancestry could be
traced back to Brahma and Manu, the latter being the ancestral progenitor of
the ten lines of kings of classical India. It inferred they were of the noble
kshatriya (warrior) caste. 5 Sircar added that Sri Dharmaraj-andaja vamsa
meant a succession of distinguished and righteous rulers belonging to the
Dev-andaja clan (the deity Garuda (the sacred Brahminy kite: Haliastur Indus)
which is also the vehicle of Vishnu. This was indicated and affirmed in the
Inscription by the Garuda motif; the Gupta monarchs also employed this
device)."
And for the first time, thanks to the compiler of the Inscription, we have
evidence of the identity of the new ruling family and their origins.
54
THE DYNASTIES MENTIONED IN THE INSCRIPTION
In verse 64, he clearly states that Ananda Chandra was a descendant of
the Saiva-Andhra monarehs 7 [presumably of Vengi ?] whose kingdom was
located between the Godavari and the Krishna Rivers, and close to the Bay
of Bengal.
Johnston was unsure, and felt it was a dynasty based somewhere in the
Deccan [an immense region of middle India].
It is interesting that as late as the 7* century, ambitious members of some
of India's princely houses were crossing the Bay to Arakan with the intention
of carving out a kingdom for themselves. And they succeeded.
The founder of this new dynasty was Vajra Sakti ("The Thunderbolt of
Karttikeya") reigned circa 649-665. 8 In addition to having been descended
from the Saiva-Andhra kings, he is also described as one who was of the
Deva family, indicating that his mother was a princess of the Deva dynasty;
we have here a scion of two prominent ruling houses. Unfortunately, this
particular Deva dynasty cannot as yet be traced; the only Devas this author
is aware of ruled in the kingdom of Harikela, part of Samatata, and which
came into prominence well after Vajra Sakti/s reign.
Vajra Sakti who was in power for sixteen years was renowned for his
dedication to religion, and therefore, according to the text, comparable to a
Vajrin (Indra); had he been of the Theravada persuasion, as is now sug-
gested, would such a comparison have been used? The mention of
danasiladisamyukta indicated that he was a follower of the Mahayana school
of Buddhism 9 — doubtless with a dash of Brahmanism.
His successor, who reigned from circa 665-701 (thirty-six years), was the
devout Sri Dharma Vijaya (named after one of the Saiva-Andhra monarehs
who was [according to the Inscription] one of his ancestors; he could also
have been called after a ruler of Ayodhaya who was of the Surya vamsa
(Solar Race). Vijaya means victory and Dharma Vijaya indicates a person
who had overcome human weaknesses.
This monarch was a pious devotee of the "Three Jewels", and it should be
noted that when he passed away, he entered not Svarga but ascended into
lokasukham Tusitam (Tusita heaven).
References to the "Three Jewels" and "Tusita heaven" reveal that he, too,
was a Mahayanist, which San Tha Aung fervently denies. In fact, Rakhaing
chronicles identify Dharma Vijaya as a Theravada Buddhist and the Con-
venor of the Fourth Buddhist Synod allegedly held at Vaishali, in Arakan [see
55
uitnfi
VA1SHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
Chapter Eleven for further details on this incredible piece of Rakhaing reli-
gious spin].
And here, too, thanks to Mitchiner's researches, can be quoted the sur-
prising and additional information to Dharma Vijaya's long and successful
reign. Mitchiner has been able to prove, by numismatic evidence, that this
monarch had expansionist tendencies, backed presumably by military might.
He marched into Samatata and seized that kingdom from its Kara rulers
[Dani said that Pattikera was the classical name of the capital of Samatata].
The annexation of this kingdom will certainly be news to Rakhaing histo-
rians who will no doubt claim another triumph for a member of 'their' race.
It would seem that Dharma Vijaya ("The Victorious One") was aptly
named.
Infuriatingly, little information is available as to when this significant event
occurred, or the length of time Samatata was under the yoke of Vaishali. But
with the death of Dharma Vijaya, which Mitchiner believes to be circa 680 [as
opposed to Sircar's circa 701], in Samatata power passed into the hands of
the Khadgas who founded the kingdom of Harikela 10 [they were in turn
replaced by the Devas].
With the loss of its rich vassal state, Vaishali probably began its slow
decline.
Unusually, the Inscription then revealed the relationship between two
rulers.
Narendra ("Monarch of Men") Vijaya (circa 701-704) who reigned for
two years and nine months, is identified as the son of Sri Dharma Vijaya.
Narendra Vijaya may have been a youth without progeny, for the line of
succession then reverted back to the son of Vajra Sakti, the founder of this
dynasty.
Johnston was uncertain of the new king's title and thought that it was
either Viranarendra Chandra or Sri Dharma Chandra. Sircar interpreted it as
Sri Dharma ("Upholder of the Religious Law") Chandra (circa 704-720). This
monarch, who was the father of Ananda Chandra, is described as having
descended from h-anvaya meaning that his forebears were royalty; Johnston
read this as "Isa" meaning Shiva.
The text described his attainments in glowing terms and indicated that
militarily he, like Dharma Vijaya, was dominant. He reigned for sixteen years,
56
THE CITY OF VAISHALI
However, during my visits in 2002 and 2005, enquiries among the villagers
revealed they had not seen any.
According to Mitchiner, the economy of Vaishali prospered until the 6*
century, thereafter the route of the silver trade bypassed the kingdom to
Samatata, further north, causing an economic downturn locally. Neverthe-
less, he also said that during the reign of Sri Dharma Vijaya (circa 665-701)
Vaishali extended its sovereignty to Samatata where his coinage was in cir-
culation. 3
If there was indeed a decline, there was no hint of this in the confident
tone of the Inscription, perhaps the silver trade had been replaced by a more
lucrative commerce in rice for which the land is still famous. The text implied
that under Ananda Chandra it was a prosperous realm, and that many re-
ligious buildings were constructed and lavish gifts bestowed on religious
establishments at home and abroad.
Structures
Amongst the ruins of Vaishali, the prevalence of dressed stone bases for
wooden pillars reveal that the majority of the structures, religious and secu-
lar, were of timber. The carved depressions in the stone sockets indicate that
the columns tended to be square, with a deep rounded centre inserted into
the base for stability.
More substantial materials were employed on devaprasada thirthika (reli-
gious edifices) such as the Buddhist stupas and the Brahmanical temples-
While the earlier buildings were constructed by sthapati (architects) from the
subcontinent who no doubt were versed in the Sthapatya veda (science of
architecture), their descendents evolved indigenous styles as evidenced by the
decorative stone fragments excavated.
Gutman mentioned in her thesis that one of these builders left behind at
the Mahamuni shrine a beautifully cast iron plummet, similar to a specimen
now on display in the British Museum. As the latter, datable to the sixth
century CE was excavated from the Surma riverbed in East Bengal, the former,
too, may have originated from somewhere in that region. Although this au-
thor was told in 2002 that this important instrument was now in a monastery
at Kyauk Taw, sadly, all traces of it have disappeared; it is probably now in
some foreign collection.
81
:iii)UtiMltl Hilild flvifi
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
By the time of the Inscription in 729, the places of worship in Vaishali
would doubtless have increased.
A dedicatory inscription of Vira Chandra Deva (reigned circa 575-578)
stated that he had constructed one hundred stupas. Considering that he
ruled for only three years, building work would have been frenetic. Then
again, these structures were probably votive stupas of brick or stone, about
four to eight feet high, some of which have survived. Models of this type can
still be encountered all over Eastern India, especially at the Mahabodhi tem-
ple, Bodh-Gaya. 4
Other monarchs from this dynasty, and the ones which followed, also
commissioned shrines and temples, since it was an established tradition for a
ruler to build at least one religious edifice during his reign. As the region had
been under the control of several dynasties, the number of Brahmanic temples
and Buddhist stupas were probably considerable. This assumption has been
confirmed by San Shwe Bu who observed in the 1920s that the area was "full
of ancient monuments now mostly hidden by jungle." 5 Sadly, few now re-
main as the bricks and stones have since been salvaged and put to other uses.
Regrettably, even though none of the buildings of the Vaishali period are
extant, one can obtain an idea from a few surviving models of the type of
Buddhist structures which once dominated the skyline of the old capital. The
November-December 2005 issue of Arts of Asia, page 122 (no. 41), contained
an illustration of a replica of a superb bronze shrine, which though incor-
rectly described as early 18 ,h century, is of the late Vaishali period, or possibly
earlier. As the architectural design is comparable to that prevalent in Orissa,
it indicates that some architects from that region were responsible for many
of the structures in Vaishali.
The convex-sided shikhara is crowned by a amalaka, a globular grooved
finial with ribbed sides like the Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis), the
cardinal points are decorated with smaller facsimiles. These amalaka have also
been incorporated on to surviving smaller stone stupas of the period. The
graduating roof is in five tiers, with the first and largest being ornamented by
rows of tiny kneeling figures depicted in the act of paying homage. Other
decorations consist of lines of quatrefoil motifs. Buddhas, either standing or
in bhumisparsa mudra within kotlhaka (s) (gate-chambers or porches) are flanked
by elegant dvarapala(s) while other divinities which appear to be of Mahayanist
origins, occupy niches.
82
I ttlJMIOlilltttlO
THE CITY OF VAISHAU
This superb object was originally installed in a relic chamber of a pagoda
built by royalty, but had fallen victim to desecrators of relic chambers, no
doubt organized by an antiques dealer in Yangon, and now languishes in a
private collection abroad.
Previously published artefacts from this period have been unimpressive,
but this exceptional example proves beyond doubt that there were craftsmen
capable of creating splendid works of art.
Models of shrines and Buddha images claimed to be of the Vaishali period
have also appeared in The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan by San Tha Aung
in his enthusiastic zeal to push back the antiquity of the city, oblivious to the
fact that the architecture and iconography all date to a time after the 12 ,h
century.* Just because these objects were discovered at Vaishali does not
necessarily validate them as being 'of pre 8 th century provenance. The former
capital was still a provincial outpost and a place of pilgrimage well into the
14 th century, but by then Brahmanism and the Mahayana form of Buddhism
had been replaced by the Theravada version.
Understandably, by the time of the Inscription, many of the older religious
structures built by former rulers were already in ruins. The text stated that
Ananda Chandra had undertaken their restoration, indicating that conserva-
tion of sorts appears to have been known; in the process it also gained the
much sought after religious merit for the pious restorer.
Arakan is lashed by monsoon rains from the Bay of Bengal for several
months each year, and perhaps the brickwork, despite its stone facing, was
substandard. This is very much in evidence at the excavated sites where the
surviving masonry reveals large bricks stacked one above the other in a hap-
hazard manner. Similar shoddy workmanship can also be seen at the
contemporary Pyu city sites in Myanmar proper.
Ananda Chandra was not only a restorer of ruins, he was also a munifi-
cent patron of Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu institutions. AH those endowed
by him were prefixed with his name, including an undisclosed number of
vihara (s) (monasteries) for the Buddhist Arya-Sangha. These were registered
as Anandodaya vihara ("Monastery of Ananda, the Compassionate") and
staffed by dasa (male) and dasi (female) slaves; land and cattle were allocated
for the use of the entire monastic community.
He also built a substantial mat ha (priory) for the Brahmin priests which he
named Anandamadhava; this was near the residence of the Brahmana of
83
■
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
In both surviving sculptures, male and female wear their elaborately dressed
long hair, secured by diadems, in a large bun on top of their heads. The
earlobes are weighted down by heavy cone-shaped earrings, reminiscent of
those seen in sculptures from early Cambodia and Indonesia. Jewelled orna-
ments are worn. The costumes are not complex.
Although the workmanship is unsophisticated, nevertheless the robes,
accessories and hair styles are invaluable as they represent the mode of dress
at court at the time these images were carved.
Among the other deities on view is an image of either Avalokitesvara or
Vishnu, although its four arms are missing, the padma, one of its attributes
has survived.
Many of these sculptures are not the accumulation of centuries, but are
the work of a master and his assistants, and were probably undertaken at
about the same time. This is indicated in the details, such as the features,
costumes, jewellery and elaborate hairstyles which are all identical.
The portrait of Bhikshatanamurti
One superb piece identified by Gutman as a Bodhisattva, has had several
interpretations foisted on it by recent Rakhaing writers. Shwe Zan, in par-
ticular, is adamant that it represents the legendry Sanda Thuriya, the alleged
builder of the Mahamuni Shrine to house the bronze image of Buddha. This
is despite the lack of an original inscription identifying the sculpture as such.
"See what you want to see" appears to be the maxim amongst the inhab-
itants of Rakhaing Land.
On inspecting this superb carving, a competent scholar will immediately
notice the pair of kundala (earrings) which it sports, and which do not match.
This identifies it as a representation of Shiva in his aspect as Bhikshatanamurti,
the patron deity of ascetics. While one earring symbolises Shiva's linga, the
other, round and perforated, represents Parvati's yoni.
Bhikshatanamurti is adorned with a superb hara (necklace), and an equally
splendid waist band. A long beaded yajnopavita [a type of sacred thread)
hangs down to the knees and is taken up at the back. The diaphanous dhoti
is secured at the hips by a belt. A sash is draped across the thighs and
knotted stylishly at the right hip, from where it falls in graceful loops — a
typical Gupta affectation.
132
I ItUMliUilBiUlO
THE MAHAMUN1 SHRINE AND MUSEUM
The glory of this sculpture is in its exquisitely tranquil face and elaborate
hairstyle. While the rest of the head, which is backed by a large halo, is
covered in small curls, framed by an ornamental keshabandha (forehead band),
the long hair from the crown has been tightly braded and arranged in three
tiers of loops. The style is reminiscent of those in use in the early kingdoms
of Cambodia; part of the coiffure of a seventh century head of Hari-hara (an
amalgamation of Shiva and Vishnu) from Prasat Phnom Da and now in the
Musee Guiment, Paris, sports a similar design.
Regrettably, for people such as Shwe Zan, their self imposed tunnel-vision
precludes them from widening their knowledge regarding Hindu iconogra-
phy or the Brahmanic gods. Anything Indian is usually looked down on by
Rakhaing Buddhists who feel immensely superior. This superiority, which the
Myanmar are also guilty of, can be compared to the way the Raj sahibs and
memsahibs treated their native subjects.
Three mysterious deities at Oak-pon-taung
Less than a mile to the east of the Mahamuni Shrine, is a range of hills, one
of which is called Oak-pon-taung ("Hill-of-the-mound-of-bricks")- The de-
scriptive title indicates there were once ruins here, perhaps a monastic complex.
Conversely, there may have been kilns where bricks were made. When I
visited the spot in 2005, several stone architectural fragments, large decapi-
tated images of Buddha, and bricks, were being excavated by the monks of
the nearby monastery.
There was also a newly built shrine containing three mystifying figures,
which on closer examination of their ornaments, revealed the work to be
from the same period as the sculptures at the Mahamuni shrine. Regrettably,
and to my intense irritation, the trio had been insensitively renovated, thereby
obliterating the original details.
Earlier in 1988, a chapter in Myauk U Ian hnuti had mentioned "several
ancient stone images" which could be observed at the foot of this particular
hill. As it described the sculptures as being "seik htu" ("stuck-into-the-carth-
and-erected"), the expressive phrase implied that they were to be seen as they
had been left for centuries, either standing or lying on the ground.
In 1988, the carvings were obviously untouched and in their original form.
The abbot of the present monastery, then decided to take matters in hand and
133
.i.uhiHiiiifliiiin
VA1SHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
have the trio 'brought up to date' so that they now look brand new and
covered in cheap gold paint.
When I complained — as I usually do when confronted with such des-
ecration* the young 'guardian' of the shrine looked incredulously at me, and
could not understand what all the fuss was about. After all, as far as he was
concerned, by performing this 'meritorious' restoration, an otherwise dam-
aged collection of sculptures had been elevated to a pristine condition — this
is the present attitude of the Rakhaing and the Myanmar — even among the
educated.
As the identity of the trio is no longer known, the monks have expediently
provided them with the epithet "Bo Bo Gyi nat yoke myar" (Great Grandfather
spirits); this is a popular title by which unidentifiable divine beings thought
to be 'ancient' are recognized throughout the country.
Who did these figures originally represent? Could they have been moved
from the Mahamuni shrine at some point in time, or was there a separate cult
centre at the bottom of this hill?
These are questions which need to be answered.
Apart from the usual nonsense, no one at the site could provide any
satisfactory information.
A notice board dated January 1, 2003, warned pilgrims:
"Scented water must not to be sprayed on the images; pebbles are not to be
placed in their hands; food offerings are prohibited; candles must not be lit;
no graffiti on the walls".
The figures had evidently been remodelled recently and the shrine opened
to the public.
It was clear the abbot of the monastery did not want the sculptures to be
propitiated by Buddhist pilgrims, as they were once Hindu deities of some
sort and not Buddhist spirits. Had the pilgrims done so, God knows how their
actions would have effected their spiritual well being - something I should
have asked the abbot!
1 was at the Mahamuni Shrine in 2002, but had no knowledge of the
existence of these statues. Had I visited the present site then, perhaps I may
have had the opportunity to photograph the trio in their original form - and
now it is too late.
134
tlHG
THE MAHAMUNI SHRINE AND MUSEUM
The Rakhaing craftsman who undertook the 'restoration' had covered the
rough stone surfaces in plaster. Whether he retained the original mudra of
each or had changed them at the direction of the abbot is anyone's guess. At
present, the position of the hands of the trio look remarkably neat, as if
deliberately rearranged to form an artistic and complementary 'set'. All three
have one of their hands cupped, as if it was meant to hold either a bowl or
an object. The gestures are quite unlike any of the carvings at the Mahamuni
Shrine.
Fortunately, the restorer had preserved some of the identifying features
which can also be seen on the corresponding Mahamuni sculptures. These are
the distinctive diadems, huge earrings, the strange wing-like appendages behind
the shoulders, the ample neckband, armlets and the characteristic belt with
its curious buckle-like loop arrangement in the centre. On the other hand, if
the images had each been originally sculpted with a rounded back slab, simi-
lar to their counterparts, these appear to have been removed.
At the Mahamuni Shrine and its environs, full scale systematic excava-
tions and research, unhindered by present biased Buddhist beliefs and
superstitions, invariably orchestrated by the local monks and trustees, need to
be undertaken urgently.
Endnotes
1. Gutman, "Between India and Southeast Asia" etc., p. 12.
2. Forchhammer, A Report on the History of Arakan, etc., p. 14.
3. Gutman, Burma's Lost Kingdoms etc., p. 34.
4. Chan Htwan Oung, "The Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan", pp. 262-265, and San Shwe Bu, "The
Story of Mahamuni". pp. 225-229. Other Rakhaing sources also claimed that the image was
destroyed.
5. Thaw Kaung, The Selected Writings of U Thaw Kaung; The Mahamuni, p. 133. He was quoting
Gutman, Burma's Lost Kingdoms etc., pp. 7-10.
6. Seckel. D., The Art of Buddhism, p. 159.
7. San Shwe Bu, "Notes and Reviews: The Story of Mahamuni", JBRS, p. 228, 1916.
8. Aung Tha U, Rakhaing Yazawin, p. 135.
9. Myar Aung, Thamaing-dair-hma Mrauk U etc., p. 134.
10. Tun Shwe Khine, A Guide to Mahamuni, p. 10, 1994.
11. Aung Tha U, Rakhaing Yazawin, 136.
12. Ibid.p. 137.
13. Ibid, pp. 137-138.
14. Gutman, Burma's Lost Kingdoms etc., p. 35.
15. Ibid p. 35.
16. Forchammer, A Report on the History of Arakan etc., p. 6. [sections from Forchammer's account
were plagiarized by Tun Shwe Khaing in his Guide to the Mahamuni, 1994.
135
witUilllD
GAapfer Unirieen
The Buddhist Council Hill at Vaishali
0n arrival at the site of the former capital, one runs immediately into
controversy.
A little to the north east of the present village of Vaishali is a seventy foot
high hillock known as Thanga-yana-tin-kon ("Hill-where-the-Buddhist-Coun-
cil-was-held") it was here, according to Rakhaing chronicles that the Fourth
Buddhist Maha Sangiti(s) (Great Council) was convened in 638 CE; 1 a claim
which is pure religious propaganda from a later age, and a confused one at
that.
According to local accounts, the event occurred during the reign of Thiri
Dharma Wizaya, a name which possibly equates with Sri Dharma Vijaya
(reigned circa 665-701) in the Inscription, in which case the dates do not
correspond. According to Mitchiner, this was the famous conqueror who
annexed and extended his authority to Samatata in Bengal.
If we are to accept the date 638 as shown in the local chronicles, it should
place this event at the time of Dharma Sura (circa 636-649) of the Inscrip-
tion.
Unfortunately, all the dates in the Rakhaing chronicles cannot be recon-
ciled with those based on evidence accepted by international scholars.
Regarding these Buddhist Councils, the sequence of events is as follows
(several versions, together with dates, are known, and this is but one.]
The First Council was held under Mahakasyapa, at Rajagriha, in modern
Rajgir, Bihar, in 473 BCE.
The Second Council under the auspices of king Kalasoka, also known as
Kakavarnin, at Vaishali, Bihar, in 336 BCE.
137
;i.)ihn«nivdi(iin
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
The Third Council was organized during the reign of Ashoka, at Pataliputra
(Patna) sometime between 274-236 BCE.
The Fourth Council under the patronage of Kanishka (circa 78-101 CE) ,
the Kushan king, in Kashmir.
Historically, the Fourth Council was conducted not in the kingdom of the
Chandras, in Arakan, but by the Theravada Buddhists in Sri Lanka. The
Mahayana Buddhists, whom the Theravadins considered 'heathens' then
organized their own event either at Jalandhar or Kashmir in about 100 CE.
In Arakan, there is here either a deliberate attempt to mislead, or to be
more charitable, confusion, on the part of the native chroniclers over the
association of the words "Vaishali" and "Buddhist Council", leading them to
take for granted that the location was their Waythali. Over the centuries, the
vast majority of the Rakhaing historians had probably never heard of the
original Vaishali in India, believing that their Waythali was the only one.
It is unclear why the Rakhaing decided to assign 'their' council as the
Fourth.
As stated above, what they failed to realize was that the site where the
original council was held in 336 BCE was at Vaishali, Bihar, after Buddha's
parinirvana at Kusinagara in circa 486 or 483 BCE, and it was designated the
Second Council [even at Vaishali, Bihar, it is still not known in which part
of the city this event took place]. 2
More importantly, that this so-called momentous occasion was held in
Arakan is not recognised in other Buddhist countries.
Although the true facts are known today, such distortions continue to be
fostered by unscrupulous monks in an attempt to draw pilgrims and, more
importantly, their donations, to the locality.
Here it must be said that San Tha Aung who normally would not have
hesitated in bringing such a significant event to the attention of the English
speaking world, was obviously aware of this charade, and thought it prudent
not to include it in a chapter on the history of the Buddhist Councils. His
comment was simply:
"These were the Four Great Councils held in different part[$] of India after the
parinirvana of Buddha."*
According to U Khaymarthiri, the present abbot at the Thanga-yana-tin
hill, the supposed Council at Vaishali in Arakan was attended by 1000 monks
138
lUUUIilii /illlfi
SBN 978-81-313-0405-1
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http://www.archive.org/stream/VaishaliAndTheIndianizationOfArakan/VaishaliAndTheIndianizationOfArakanByNoelF.Singer_djvu.txt
Published by
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4435-36/7, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj
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ISBN: 978-81-313-0405-1
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Cover: A collage depicting Shiva as Bhikshatanamurti (deity of ascetics), flanked by
DvarapaJa(s), possibly 5* or 6 ,h century CE.
Printed at
Balaji Offset
Navin Shahdara, Delhi-32
. liUhntuilihlHQ
Con/enh
Acknowledgements oil
Intr od uction ix
1. Background history 1
2. "Buddha's pretended peregrinations" in Arakan - 19
3. The Inscriptions of the Dhanyavati and Vaishali periods 28
4. The Ananda Chandra Inscription 39
5. The dynasties mentioned in the Inscription 48
6. The Court at Vaishali 58
7. Thp Chandra rains 64
8. The City of Vaishali 76
9. Religious beliefs 93
10. Vaishali today 100
11 .The Museum at Mrauk U 109
12. Thp Mahamnni Shrinp and Mnspnm 122
13. Thp Buddhist Council Hill 137
Addendum 149
Bibliography 154
■
UicJznowledqemenis
QVCty deepest gratitude must go to the late Professor E. H. Johnston of
c/ltBalliol College, Oxford, who translated the Sanskrit text of the Ananda
Chandra Inscription, but regrettably did not live to see it published. Research
on ancient Arakan suffered a terrible blow by his untimely death in 1942.
I would like to put on record my grateful thanks to the long-suffering
Colleen Beresford (nee Rustom) and Terence Blackburn for reading the manu-
script, and for their innumerable and critical suggestions, in particular their
prudent advice regarding my forthright views on the neglect of the historic
sites, and the offhand attitude of the people, clergy and the authorities. Colleen
has not only allowed me to quote from her scholarly article "Some Coins of
Arakan", but has also provided me with a rare copy of one of San Tha
Aung's books on Ananda Chandra, together with some important news
cuttings and photographs vital to my work, and for which I am obliged.
The incredibly patient Terence Blackburn has kindly spent long hours
trawling the Internet for information relevant to the present work.
To U Sein Maung U, sometime Conservator of the Department of Archae-
ology, Yangon, for his unfailing help in countless ways, especially in obtaining
crucial information on the excavations at Vaishali which would have been
well beyond my reach.
To U Khin Aung, (Emperor Travels and Tours, Yangon. www.
emperortravelsntours.com), another accommodating friend and incomparable
tour organiser, for arranging my trips to this extraordinary region in 2002
and 2005, and for bravely accompanying me on many a bone-shattering car
ride, and hazardous climbs to jungle-clad hill tops in search of elusive ruins;
I was told later by the driver that these remote locations were particularly
attractive to snakes!
To Dr Pamela Gutman and Dr Michael Mitchiner whose important con-
tributions on the history, religion and culture of this region has been invaluable.
Their works have also helped to clear many an unanswered question on the
period. At this moment in time, they appear to be the only recognized au-
thorities on ancient Arakan.
t T
VII
■
il ItlJMItHitliUlO
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
The obliging staff at the Mrauk U and the Mahamuni Museums also have
my deep gratitude. Despite little financial backup from the relevant authori-
ties, these dedicated souls are undertaking a tremendous amount of work,
much of it in their own free time.
Grateful thanks to Daw Saw Saw Sarpay for some of the illustrations
which appeared in San Tha Aung's The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan.
Any interpretations, forthright or cynical opinions, and errors are, of course,
mine alone.
The drawings and photographs, unless otherwise stated, are by the au-
thor, as are the comments in square brackets.
Noel Francis Singer
2008
vin
LlitmttUhnOJiVdilliG
SJniroduciion
CThis account originally appeared as an article "Sculptures from Vaishali,
O Arakan", in Arts of Asia, July-August 2007, vol. 38, no. 4.
The project initially began in 1999 and by 2006, reams of information had
been gathered, threatening to turn the article into a book. As space in any
magazine is at a premium, this meant that much of the data had to be
grudgingly jettisoned and the text ruthlessly edited.
Nevertheless, I was determined to retrieve the valuable data and reweave
the scattered strands into a book as I felt it was too significant to waste.
Many of the photographs not included in the article were also too valuable
to be consigned to oblivion.
Obviously, since the article was published, 1 have received more pertinent
information which necessitated several changes in the present text.
My interest in ancient Arakan had been simmering since the late 1950s,
when I lived in Myanmar, but was unable to visit the 'legendary' sites of
Mahamuni and Vaishali. In those days, it involved an unpleasant sea voyage,
and once there, transport was practically non existent. Many of the locations,
too, were also in the hands of rebel groups and extremely dangerous. A
virulent form of malaria was rampant — and still is — so intending travellers
beware. Medication, insect repellent and a mosquito net are a must. One
cannot be too careful about the food either, even in the best hotels.
Over forty years later, and now living in the United Kingdom, I finally
achieved my wish. Disappointingly, during each of my two visits, I came
away with almost all my long-held illusions shattered, saddened at the ter-
rible neglect, and the vandalism being perpetrated on ancient religious artefacts
by ignorant and misguided men, in particular the Buddhist clergy. There was
also extreme poverty in the outlying areas. The total lack of interest from the
locals was depressing. Then again, one cannot blame these simple rural folk.
IX
■ liUhlli) lilfli'tUD
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
as finding the means to fill hungry bellies is far more important than expend-
ing energy on the preservation of mouldy old ruins and ancient artefacts.
During my travels in the countryside, it was most distressing to see such
abject poverty.
This account of Vaishali does not pretend to be a scholarly work, and
despite my lack of academic qualifications, I have tried to tell what is to me
a fascinating story which was probably replicated in various parts of ancient
Southeast Asia which came under the influence of the Hindu colonists.
The early history of Arakan from 200 to the 900 CE is far from complete
and still shrouded in what appears to be an impenetrable haze. Not only
have insufficient archaeological investigations been undertaken, it has also
been iveighed down and sabotaged by inaccurate information by native chroni-
clers of a later age.
Some foreign writers, too, have either slavishly repeated these fantasies,
presented their own interpretations, refuted the findings of others, or else,
ignored this early period altogether. For example, ancient Arakan of the
Chandras was omitted by George Coedes in his celebrated The Indianized
States of Southeast Asia.
A number of readers may find it surprising that I have not given due
weight to indigenous accounts of a later date quoted in this work. This is a
deliberate omission on my part owing to their unreliability, permeated as they
are with borrowed historical episodes and myths from Buddhist and Hindu
India. Although these native sources are claimed to be 'ancient', they prob-
ably date from a time after the 14 th century. Above all, they had a tendency
to fabricate, obsessed with a need to present a realm infused with Buddhist
piety of the Theravada School when in fact it was a Mahayana version,
together with Brahmanism, which predominated.
As things stand, an immense amount of research and scientific excava-
tion, unhampered by religious bigotry and political propaganda urgently needs
to be accomplished.
One occasionally hears of this or that foreign institution planning excava-
tions and conservation, but nothing constructive appears to have materialized
in Arakan. Judging by the articles in the Myanmar Historical Commission
Journal, attention seems to be focused on Myanmar proper.
This present work is based on the unique lithic inscription of circa 729
commissioned by Ananda Chandra, ruler of Vaishali, together with other
epigraphic evidence and iconographic. At this point in time, these are
fliinu
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
the only contemporary historical materials available for this early period.
One can but hope that before long a fuller picture will emerge when other
relevant inscriptions have been excavated.
1 ItUmirijitliHlO
Gnap/er Q
er \jne
Background history*
CTTie elongated coastal strip of Arakan (Rakhaing) is situated on the western
kJ part of Burma (Myanmar) proper and extends for almost 360 miles. At its
widest it is roughly 100 miles, while at its narrowest it is only about 25 miles.
On the west is the Bay of Bengal, the region now called Bangladesh is to the
north, and on the east are the high Yoma mountains. Man tended to congre-
gate in the fertile river valleys.
What may conceivably be the earliest representation of this ancient land
can be seen in a map based on the findings of the Greek scholar Erathosthenes
(circa 276-194 BCE), the Chief Librarian of the Great Library at Alexandria.
In it, Hindoi or Indoi (India) and Taprobane (Sri Lanka) are indicated. In-
cluded are the Ganga (Bhagerathi) River and its Delta, together with part of
the curving coastal strip of Arakan. The Yoma range which separate this
region from the country now called Myanmar, is depicted as well. Unfortu-
nately, Arakan is represented as a blank space with no identifiable habitation
sites.
A chart by Strabo (c. 63/64 BCE-24 CE) which appears to have been
based on the above, is almost identical for this region. However, in a later
map derived from those of Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy: flourished 127-145
CE, another inhabitant of Alexandria), the coastline of Arakan has been
updated considerably, and the mountain barrier illustrated in detail. Of par-
ticular interest is the inclusion of the premier port city of Sada together with
another, also on the coast, called Berabonna. The river "Sados Flu" [thought
to be the present Kaladan) is shown.
Another map, also based on Ptolemy's researches and published in 1695,
identified the Yoma mountain chain as the "Meandrus Mons". In this
* All dales not designated BCE are of the Christian Era. Comments in square brackets are by the author
■ liiJKHi) lilfli'tUD
VA1SHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
version, only two cities are named, Sada on the coast, and Triglyphon, situ-
ated further inland and to the north.
An additional chart entitled "Geographiae Antiquae" and dated 1818,
depicted Sada and Berabonna, together with Triglyphon which had now
been relocated to the coast; several versions based on Ptolemy are known to
exist.
In those remote days, it is possible that it was in Bharatavarsha ("The
Realm of the Sons of Bharata", a fabled Indian ruler) that the earliest name
by which Arakan was known was first recorded, and where it achieved
notoriety as "Kala Mukha" (Land of the) Black Faces.'
The Mahaniddesa (circa 200 CE) noted that the Ramayana (The Adventures
of Rama: circa 500 BCE) and the Mahabharata (The Great (battle of the]
Bharatas: circa 400 BCE) identified it by that appellation, and described its
denizens as cannibals, presumably negritos. :
Not surprisingly, the Hindus called them rakshasa (demons) as they be-
lieved them to be the offspring of men and rakshasis (shape-changing female
demons) who through their magical powers could metamorphose themselves
into delectable maidens.- 1
The legend of the rakshasa filtered down the centuries, for the present-day
Rakhaing whose presence was first noted in the region in about the 10 ,h
century CE 4 knew their land as Yetkhapura (Rakshasa pura) or Kingdom and
City of the Demons; although it is unclear where this city-state was situated
or during which period it flourished.
Gerini was sceptical of the derivation of Yetkhapura from the word
"rakshasa", he felt that although Ptolemy in his Geographike Hyphegesis (Guide
to Geography) had populated the littoral .around the Gulf of Martaban with
cannibal tribes, he had not mentioned their existence in Arakan.
"The term Rakhaing can therefore be scarcely connected with the tradition of the
Raksasas occupying at one time the land, and any such pretended connection put
forward is undoubtedly the modern invention of Buddhist monks, anxious to find
some explanation for the name of the country.
Sir Arthur Phayre says that the latter was designated as Rakkha-pura by the
Buddhist missionaries from India; but I should like to hear how far back in antiquity
this name can be traced. It appears in the Mahavamsa [of Sri LankaJ under the form
Rakkhanga at so late a date as A.D. 1592; and in the Ain-i-Akbari at about the same
period under the form Arkung." 5
Uftnfi
BACKGROUND HISTORY
Luce, quoting Ptolemy [who in turn was citing Pomponius Mela (circa 43
CE) ] on the location of ancient Arakan, said:
"Descending the coast south-eastwards from the mouth of the Ganges, he names first
the Airrhadoi (with the port ofBarakoura) [this was presumably in the Chittagong
region]; then the country of Argyre ["Silver Land" i.e. ArakanJ with [the towns
of] Sambra, Sada, Berabonna and Temala [which Gereni believed was Cape
NegraisJ; then a Cape; then the cannibals ofBesynga (thought to be in the region
of the mouth of the Irrawaddy River] in the Sarabak Gulf [most likely the Gulf
of Martaban]."'
These areas were allegedly inhabited by other savage tribes, such as the
Beseidai or Tiladai who lived between India and China, therefore somewhere
in present day Myanmar. However, Luce, when quoting Ptolemy, offered
conflicting descriptions. While on one occasion he defined the people as "big"
of stature and "broad and hairy and broad-faced, white-skinned", further on
they are described as "stunted. 7 The Periplus had originally depicted them as
"pygmies".
Nevertheless, according to Luce "Both Chinese and Greek sources agree in
placing, at the beginning of our era, undersized and white-skinned peoples in
Burma, and the existence of early trade-routes between China and India."*
How reliable is the anecdote concerning the cannibals?
Regarding these man-eating savages, was Ptolemy simply repeating the scare
stories of the geographers before him, and the sensational traveller's tales
which were liable to circulate in ports of the world? After all, it is a well
known fact that humans have a tendency to fabricate, either from sheer
ignorance or pure malice.
Revealingly, a location map in Moore's recent work pinpoints numerous
fortified habitation sites from possibly before 100 CE in the very areas suppos-
edly being terrorized by Ptolemy's cannibals. 9
The cold archaeological and scientific facts are these.
Cave paintings and stone implements said to be over 5,000 years old have
been discovered in the Badalin ("Shining-as-Mercury") Caves in the Shan
States. Older still are the mysterious hunter-gatherers of a prehistoric period
called "Anyathian", from the relatively modern Myanmar word ah-nyar-tha,
meaning a male from the upper part of the country.
iunutUhniiMflitnh
VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
Recent excavations have uncovered hitherto unknown finds from loca-
tions which have been identified as the Neolithic, 'Bronze Age' and the 'Iron
Age'. The Nyaungyan burial site, in particular, has revealed what appear to
be unique 'mother goddess' figures crafted out of thin sheets of bronze; the
identification of these symbols is still ongoing. Grave goods include decorative
ornaments for coffins, polished stone implements, large perforated stone discs
designed for the wrists and chest, glass rings, pottery and bronze artefacts. 10
Almost similar examples from these periods have also been reported in Thai-
land."
It is doubtful if cannibalism was practiced amongst these people who
were certainly not wild savages.
Carbon-dated evidence has revealed that by circa 200 BCE, the Pyu (Piao
or Tircul), possibly one of the earliest civilized ethnic groups, were already
established within their small city-states in central Myanmar.
One must presume that the civilized and the uncivilized existed within
their own territories, with raids and counter raids being undertaken as the
centuries passed. It would appear that the more primitive tribes were finally
pushed further back into the wilderness, for the Pyu and the Mon, each in
their own kingdoms, soon came to dominate the land.
But that is another story.
The first wave of Hindu colonists
To return to what was occurring at the time in ancient Arakan.
In India of the 1" century CE, fuelled by their need for commerce, gold
and silver, the initial wave of Hindu colonists undertaking their samudra yatra
(sea voyages) across the Purva Samudra (Bay of Bengal) began in earnest. 12
These extraordinarily courageous travellers, composed of merchants, ad-
venturers, artisans, Brahmana, members of the ruling elite and, one must
assume, some of their fearless women folk, braved the terrifying and cramped
conditions at sea to seek out strange new worlds such as the fabled
Survanabhumi and Suvarnadvipa, which reputedly contained unimaginable
wealth. Once at their destination, the pioneers founded settlements and over-
came the hostility of the local inhabitants. Some of their elite married into the
families of loc.il tribal chiefs and in time, by their superior knowledge and
skills, came to rule over them.
I litJIOMUiljlilHQ
BACKGROUND HISTORY
It was surprising to learn that even before that early date, many of the
coastal areas and shipping lanes of the Indian Ocean and the Straits of Malacca
were infested by pirates who either killed all on board or sold them into
slavery. This meant that for the prudent ship owners and merchants, precau-
tionary measures had to be taken, and a contingent of archers and spearmen
hired to accompany these voyages. 13
By the 3' d century, the coastal regions of Kala Mukha had been settled,
with the colonists dominating and coexisting warily with the aboriginal tribes.
The Lords of the Solar and Lunar dynasties from far off Bharatavarsha
had indeed arrived.
In the major habitation sites, Sanskrit was the written language for the
ruling classes, and religious beliefs were those current at the time on the
subcontinent.
Dr. Emil Forchhammer, a Swiss Professor of Pali at Rangoon College, and
Superintendent of the newly founded Archaeological Survey [1881] described
this fertile region [which was, and is still infested with the deadly malaria
mosquito {Culicidae)].
"The earliest datvn of the history of Arakan reveals the base of the hills, which divide
the lower course of the Kaladan and Lemro rivers, inhabited by sojourners from India,
governed by chiefs who claim relationship with the rulers of Kapilavastu. Their
subjects are divided into the four castes of the older Hindu communities; the kings
and priests study the three Vedas; the rivers, hills, and cities bear names of Aryan
origin; and the titles assumed by the king and queen regent suggest connection with
the Solar and Lunar dynasties of India/' 1 *
Argyre, the Silver Land
Ptolemy, quoting Pomponius Mela, had identified this part of Eastern India
as Argyre (Silver Land) as he had been told that it contained numerous silver
mines. Its capital was Sada. But since this metal is not found in the region,
later scholars found his description perplexing, neither could the city of Sada
be identified.
Majumdar, too, could not agree with this location for Argyre and felt that
"we might look upon the island of Java as corresponding to Argyre, and
there are several facts which speak in favour of this supposition." 15
Fortunately, in 1978 the mystery was partly explained by Mitchmer, who
said that the reason it bore the epithet Silver Country was that its govern-
i'lllD
VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ABAKAN
ment acted as a mediator for the export of bullion which originated in Nanzhao
(Yunnan) and an area of Myanmar which is now believed to be located in the
present Bawzaing area of the Shan States 16 [the Bawdwin mines are another
location]. This immense stretch of country in the Shan States was variously
under the control of the Pyu kingdoms of Vishnupura (City of Vishnu), Hanlin,
and the Varman and Vikrama dynasties of Sri Kshetra, named after the holy
city of Puri in Kalinga, and sacred to Vaishnavites-
According to Mitchiner, the silver was taken down the Temalos (Irrawaddy
River) to Temala, thought to be near present-day Syriam (Thanlyin), across
the river from Rangoon (Yangon); it was later to become part of the Mon
kingdom of Ramannadesa.
From Temala, the bullion from Nanzhao was shipped to agents in the
eastern kingdoms and to Sada in the Silver Land from where it was dis-
patched to India and beyond. This precious metal attracted the attention of
the Romans, for it is known that sometime during the 2 nd century CE, a small
expedition sailed across the Apara Samudra {Arabian Sea) and the Bay of
Bengal, and managed to travel to Nanzhao by way of the Irrawaddy River
— an incredible and obviously dangerous undertaking.
As to the identity of the capital of Argyre, Ptolemy was told that the
Sanskritic name of the ruling dynasty was Chandra, which his informants,
using the Prakrit parallel, pronounced Chada. Linguistic difficulties meant
that Ptolemy's rendition became Sada, which he also used for the capital. 17
Interestingly, the Mahaniddcsa also referred to the city as Sada, and said
that it was a premier port of call for shipping from Palur in the Ganjam
district of Kalinga (Udra or Orissa) and Tamralipti (Tamluk), on the Hugli
River, about thirty miles southwest of modern Kolkata. 1 *
Gerini, quoting from Ptolemy, said that Sada was identified:
"as the terminus of the sea-passage across the Gangetic Gulf (Bay of Bengal) from
Palttra [in Kalinga], effected in a direct line from west to east, and covering a
distance of 13,000 stadia. It xoas, therefore, the first port touched at in his lime by
ships proceeding from India to the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal, Some ships,
however, took a more northerly route, and touched at the riverine port of Antibole on
the Dhakka or Old Ganges River, before making out for Sada and the Gulf of
Martaban.""
However, Gerini did not agree with Ptolemy's identification and location
of Sada, and was of the opinion that the city was sited at the present port
town of Sandoway (Thandwair, with Ihe classical name of Dvaravati) which
■
BACKGROUND HISTORY
■
is considerably further down the Arakanese coast. He added pertinently that
some of the later Portuguese maps were still calling the port Sedoa.
[Gerini's assumption is credible, for although all the maps based on
Ptolemy's researches show Sada as being situated on the coast, it is in fact
over fifty miles inland. Why would the vessels from India travel laboriously
inland, through winding mangrove creeks, and facing possible attacks by
pirates, when the present port of Sandoway was more accessible?]
The large sea going vessels from India, known as mahanavah, were head-
ing east to other Southeast Asian kingdoms, in particular to Survanabhumi
("Land of Gold"; claimed to be Lower Myanmar and Malaysia), and to
Suvarnadvipa ("Isle of Gold"), which Majumdar identifies as Sumatra, to-
gether with some of the islands in the region. Several interpretations of the
exact location of these fabled lands are current. Another name for this region
was the legendary Chryse, known to Pomonius Mela, Pliny the Elder and
others of an earlier period, and which is now accepted as covering a large
swathe of Southeast Asia.
The second period of Indianisation
The second phase of the Indianisation of Arakan occurred from about the 4 ,h
to the 6 th centuries, by which time the kingdom of the colonists had been well
established. One must also assume that by then, the earlier name of "Sada",
for its capital, had been replaced by "Vaishali"
As a port city, Vaishali was in contact with Samantata (Tippera-Noakhali
region. Southeast Bengladesh), India, Simhaladivipa (Sri Lanka) and other
overseas realms. Relations were strengthened by trade and diplomatic con-
nections and the movements of migrants, pilgrims and itinerant craftsmen.
Nearer home, the Chandra rulers were in communication by land and
water with the Pyu kingdoms across the mountains in the east, and with the
small Mon city states in Ramannadesa.
Collis, who in 1925 quoted his source in good faith, said that the archae-
ologist, San Shwe Bu, had provided him with a translation from an old
manuscript called "The True Chronicle of the Great Image" [the Mahamuni
bronze which was located at the earlier capital of Dhanyavati].
"The Chandra kings were upholders of Buddhism, guarding and glorifying the
Mahamunni [sic] shrine; their territory extended as far north as Chittagong" [then
known as Chatigrama]. "The conclusion to be drawn from this MS is that Wesali
I
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
(Vaishali] was an easterly Hindu kingdom of Bengal, following the Mahayanist form
of Buddhism and that both government and people were Indian as the Mongolian
influx had not yet occurred." 30
The uncertainty over the date for the founding of Vaishali
Even though the capital of the Chandras is now accepted as Vaishali, there
is as yet no coeval epigraphic evidence confirming it, neither is the term by
which they identified their kingdom known. Western scholars have based
their identification on the word "Waythali" (Vaishali), a corrupt later version
in use by the present Rakhaing and the Myanmar peoples who are incapable
of pronouncing the character "v".
If it was indeed Vaishali, Dr Johnston, an epigraphist of Balliol College,
Oxford, who translated the Sanskrit inscription (circa 729) of Ananda
Chandra, Maharaja of Vaishali, felt that the region had come under the
control of the descendents of the [Licchavi] ruling family from Vaishali, Bihar,
when they fled from the ascendancy of the Imperial Guptas (circa 300-
467). 314 "
Johnston's theory is plausible, as the time scale corresponds with the sec-
ond surge of Hindu migration into Southeast Asia, and the creation of the
new Vaishali, when the Licchavi, under Dven Chandra (circa 370-425) estab-
lished a Chandra vamsa (Lunar dynasty); previously the Licchavi claimed to
be of the Surya vamsa (Solar dynasty).
However, at the present time, different opinions are current amongst schol-
ars as to the identity of the city which Dven Chandra inaugurated. While
some believe that it was the older Dhanyavati (meaning "rich as a source for
food grains" because of the fertility of the earth), about sixteen miles to the
north, others are of the opinion that it was Vaishali.
If we assume that it was the latter, at the location [Latitude 20° 40' 05"
North, Longitude 93° 90' East] which was to become Vaishali, there was
probably in existence a sizable number of colonists from the subcontinent,
making it an ideal choice for the high-born Licchavi.
Then again, if it was Dhanyavati, it is unclear if the Licchavi replaced the
earlier ruling house. This was an important site containing the Mahamuni
Shrine, with its reputedly miraculous 'living' bronze image of Buddha. How-
ever, apart from legendry accounts invented centuries later, there is as yet no
evidence of a contemporary nature to suggest that the shrine was already in
existence when the Licchavi established the spot as their new capital.
8
iiniiflifHctafttia
BACKGROUND HISTORY
As Sada was mentioned in the Mahaniddesa, followed by Mitchiner's in-
terpretation of Ptolemy's 2 nd century rendition of "Chandra", perhaps the
dynastic name of this older dynasty, too, was Chandra?
Little is known of these early raja (s) who ruled at Dhanyavati, apart from
the fabricated accounts in later native chronicles which date this dynasty
from 600 BCE to 400 CE. Htun Shwe Kaing has gone further and pushed the
date for "the First Dhanyavati dynasty" to 3000 BCE, which one must accept
as pure wishful thinking. 23
In circa 729 CE, the inscription set by Ananda Chandra provided a list of
the long line of past rulers, and the major events which occurred during their
time of sovereignty. It stated that as the region was unstable, the monarch
Dven Chandra had to subdue no less than 101 kings, presumably local tribal
chiefs {this is a common symbolic number used to describe the many races of
man, implying that as the conqueror of so many, he was entitled to the status
of supreme ruler or Emperor].
Dven Chandra then laid out a nngaram (royal city), 24 ovoid in plan and
measuring 2.7 square miles in area. It was protected by fortifications and
moats.
If this was the present site of Vaishali, one will have to speculate that
either for sentimental reasons, or on seeing the topography with its vast
fertile lands which resembled the locality of their former home, the Licchavi
decided to name their new city after it. Vaishali is a derivation of Visala
meaning broad, extensive, spacious, magnificent. It was also the name of
Visala, the founder of the dynasty, who was the son of Trinabundu of the
Dcsavaku dynasty, possibly a semi-mythical ruler.
The original Vaishali in Bihar, described as "a small but powerful republic
governed by nobles of the Vriji family", was one of the six great cities of India
visited by Buddha. 25 It is situated about 27 miles north of Pataliputra (Patna)
and contains the Licchavi Relic stupa and the Abhishek Pushkarini or Coro-
nation Pond of the later Vaishali rulers.
Fa-Hsien and Xuanzang, the Chinese pilgrims who were in India between
401-410 and 629-645 respectively, travelled to the older "Fei-she-li", and
reported that although the region was very fertile, this celebrated site was
already in ruins.
Whether it was Dhanyavati or Vaishali, centuries later in Arakan, the
Ananda Chandra Inscription of 729 [henceforth to be known simply as the
Inscription] enthused that because of its magnificence the newly built but
■
VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
unnamed capital, "saundarya hasinam" (laughed at) the grandeur of Amaravati,
the Vedic deity Indra's fabulous capital in Svarga ("Light of Paradise"). 26 * 27
Gutman has suggested that the city built by Dven Chandra was not Vaishali
but Dhanyavati, and dated the former to the 6 th century; this was based on
surviving archaeological evidence such as sculptures. 78 Earlier, she had sug-
gested the 7 th century. 29
If this is the case, it had to be the splendid city of Dhanyavati which
supposedly expressed amusement at the opulence of Indra's Svarga.
On the other hand, if Dhanyavati had been constructed by Dven Chandra
sometime between circa 370-425, who then was responsible for relocating the
capital to a site named Vaishali?
At the moment, no one appears to agree and each expert offers a bewil-
dering array of dates and theories.
Vaishali founded in circa 2 nd century BCE
In 1972, Aung Thaw, Director of Archaeology, recorded that "a Hinduised
dynasty was ruling at Vaisali (Wethali) about the 2 nd century B.C." 30
Vaishali built in 327 CE
The writers Myar Aung and Shwe Zan have claimed that Vaishali was built
in 327 by Maha Taing Sandra, who is not listed in the Inscription, and that
this was the year in which the great Pharagri image was commissioned and
installed at the capital at the instigation of his consort Thupaba Devi (see
Chapter Eleven). 31 Conversely, the late San Tha Aung, insisted that the year
was 370.
Vaishali established early 6 ,h century
If the first half of the 6 th century has been recommended by Gutman for its
foundation, there were only two maharaja{s) listed in the Inscription for this
period. They were Bhuti Chandra (circa 496-520) and Niti Chandra (circa
520-575).
In all probability, it was the latter, for the Inscription indicated that he
reigned for fifty-five years. There was also peace in the realm, and more
importantly, the economy appeared to have been strong [this may be attested
10
; I.Uhl nnivfliilin
BACKGROUND HISTORY
by the fact that the coins issued by him are the most common in the Chandra
series to have survived].
But that was all.
There is no mention in the Inscription of a new capital being built during
his reign.
The mystery is, why was such a vitally important subject as the relocation
of the capital not confirmed and identified in the text? Although it recorded
the construction of a city, frustratingly it failed to name or date the event.
To confuse matters further, the later Rakhaing chronicles have also claimed
a date for the establishment of Vaishali — in fact a baffling number.
To quote but a few.
One source 32 asserted that Vaishali was built by the monarch Vasudeva
[not listed in the Inscription]. Another said that Vasudeva and his nine broth-
ers took over old Arakan and established themselves at Dvaravati (now
Thandwair, also known as Sandoway during British colonial times; the city
reputedly had a habit of floating off into the air and had to be tethered to the
ground by a massive chain].
Vasudeva is also another name for the god Krishna, who is the eighth
manifestation of Vishnu.
Providentially, we have Gutman's version regarding this mysterious
Vasudeva. She explains that he was the focus of the Bhagavata cult [con-
nected with the worship of Vishnu or Krishna] adopted by the Gupta monarchs,
which the Chandra rulers felt obliged to imitate, doubtless to bolster their self
importance."
According to Dallapiccola, in India the cult later amalgamated with the
Vaishnava faction of the Pancharatras."
One must assume that somehow this information filtered down through
the centuries to later Rakhaing chroniclers who were totally unaware of its
significance, and presumed that Vasudeva had to be the name of a very
important monarch, and was therefore the ideal candidate for the founder of
Vaishali.
11
■
i tiumiiHitiitno
VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
Vaishali constructed in 788 CE
An indication of how these supposedly ancient Rakhaing chronicles could get
their facts terribly wrong is revealed by Collis, who was equally ignorant of
the piece of information he was quoting.
"The area now known as north Arakan has been for many years before the 8 ,k century
the seat of Hindu dynasties; in 788 A.D., a new dynasty, known as the Chandras,
founded the city of Wesali [the dynasty then] came to an end in 957 A.D., being
overwhelmed by a Mongolian invasion."**
[The date could not possibly be 788, for the Chandra dynasty had ended
by circa 600. Yet, according to Kyi Khin, who was doubtless quoting one of
the later Rakhaing chronicles, it was Maha Tain Sandara who rebuilt the old
[and presumably abandoned] city of Vaishali in 788, and that it was de-
stroyed in 957. 36
Vaishali built in 790 CE
Forchhammer, quoting the Sappadanapakarana (Sarvasthanaprakarana), claimed
to be "an ancient Arakanese manuscript of great value" added another twist to
the story;
"In the year 152 B.E [Buddhist Era] (A.D. 790) the new city of Vesali [sic] was
founded by the King Mahataingcandra on the site where the old town had stood." 37
As the chronicle did not identify this "old town", Dhanyavati is out of the
question as it is nearly sixteen miles to the north. Another source, however,
said that this "old town" was Ramavati ("The City of Rama").
Vaishali created in 887 CE
Aung Tha U, who failed to reveal his source, made the surprising claim that
Vaishali was founded by Maha Sandra in 887 CE. M He was obviously not
aware that the oldest section of the Inscription [the text on the east face of
the pillar] was already in existence by the reigns of either Bhumi Chandra
(circa 489-496) or Bhuti Chandra (circa 496-520) wi Vaishali itself, and that
by 887, the Chandra dynasty had long ceased to exist.
The by now bemused and mystified reader will be relieved to learn that
at this point in time all theories are tentative. Until archaeological and scien-
tific investigations have been conducted thoroughly, and centuries of
12
flSnfi
BACKGROUND HISTORY
#
entrenched and bewildering myths created by later native chroniclers which
have influenced some naive foreign scholars, eradicated.
It will probably be many years before a competent archaeologist or histo-
rian, will be able to unravel this mystery and present an acceptable account
of this period.
Regarding the founding of the earlier Dhanyavati, as Gutman has sug-
gested a period sometime between 370-425, one must also presume that this
should be accepted as the date for the construction of the Mahamuni Shrine
on Sirigutta hill, thereby causing the chroniclers, invariably monks of a later
age, to spin in their graves.
These pious men have stated, and with great authority, that the dedica-
tion of the shrine and its bronze icon was attended by none other than
Buddha himself, who 'activated' the icon by breathing 'life' into it, and named
it the Candasara image.
One is informed that on that fabulous day when the bronze image was
created, among the distinguished guests were none other than Indra and
Visvakarman (Tvashtri), the celestial architect and creator of Indra's Swarga,
who was also responsible for casting the image, and for the construction of
the shrine to house it.
This preposterous claim is still accepted by the entire country.
As supernatural beings, if Indra and Visvakarman were endowed with
such impressive magical powers, why was there a need to actually cast a
bronze image? Could it not have been magicked out of thin air?
Then again, why were Hindu gods attending and taking part in a Bud-
dhist ceremony?
If as it is now claimed that this centre of worship was of great importance
at the time, why was it not mentioned in the Inscription?
The Rakhaing who are of Sino-Tibetan stock, did not arrive at their present
homeland from Western China until about the 10* century CE. However,
their quasi-historical records which are secondary material compiled centu-
ries later, and liberally sprinkled with anachronisms, now maintain that they
have been in their country since 5000 BCE. They also claim, quite seriously,
the early Indian dynasties of Dhanyavati and Veshali as their own — peopled
by the Rakhaing race. 39
13
ihUhiHuiiailnfi
Gnapier L7our
The Ananda Chandra Inscription
CThe contents of all the previous records pale in comparison to that of the
the dedicatory records include a date, the names on the coins and the signifi-
cant list of the rulers in the Inscription have helped scholars to identify the
royal donors.
Had it not been for Johnston and the Indian epigraphists before him, the
contents of the Inscription which remained inaccessible for well over a thou-
sand years, would never have been known. Although the Rakhaihg chroniclers,
monks and laymen alike, were incapable of deciphering the Sanskrit text,
they were not above providing fictitious names and accounts of the rulers of
this and other ancient sites.
While the Inscription, which consists of sixty-five verses [seventy-one and
a half lines] has provided important material regarding dates and locations,
its compiler could also be infuriatingly terse at times. Neither the name of the
kingdom or the two premier city sites of Dhanyavati and Vaishali are men-
tioned; it simply states that a nagaram (royal city) had been established.
Since nothing comparable to this eleven foot high monolith exists in
Myanmar, during my visits in 2002 and 2005, I was distressed to find it
neglected and the text flaking. Though it is four sided, only three faces are
inscribed in a Nagari script which is allied to those of North-Eastern India
and Vanga (Bengal).
As the monolith is cemented to the floor, each of the four panels has been
designated according to the cardinal direction in which it faces; this is for
easy reference.
39
iiitftumhi HiMflilnh
VA1SHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
And now for some deduction games on the age of the inscription on each
panel.
The panel on the east face
While Johnston merely said that the script on the eastern face was the ear-
liest,' San Tha Aung felt that it could be dated to sometime between 300 to
600 CE. 2 Alternatively, Shwe Zan was less vague and claimed that the record
could be credited to either Bhumi Chandra (circa 489-496) or Bhuti Chandra
(circa 496-520). 3 Gutman has also suggested that it was similar to the type of
script used in Bengal during the early sixth century. 4
The panel on the north face
Although Johnston suggested a date for the type of script on the north panel
he mentioned that several smaller inscriptions in Bengali characters, had been
added during the tenth century. Gutman, on the other hand, felt that the
principal text in this section was of the mid eleventh century. 5 Then again,
Kyi Khin in his Report, indicated that the first four lines on the north panel
were of the 7* 1 century, and that the short inscriptions at the base belonged
to the 9 ,n century. 6
Regrettably, the contents of the eastern and northern faces have not yet
been fully investigated, and the situation has reached a critical point as the
surfaces are fast deteriorating. Half-hearted plans to have the texts studied
and translated have not materialized.
[The profound apathy which appears to grip most civil servants in the
relevant departments may be one of the reasons. One must also assume that
there are no competent epigraphists available to attempt unravelling the in-
scriptions. By all accounts, resources are now focused on the archaeology in
Myanmar proper, with early Arakan and old Mon thrust to one side].
The panel on the west face
Fortunately, this segment which is reasonably preserved, is a prasasti (record
of a ruler's qualities and achievements) of Ananda Chandra and his pred-
ecessors, including some earlier monarchs who are thought to be legendary.
Johnston dated the type of script to the sixth or early seventh century, 7 while
Gutman felt that it was from the earlier part of the eighth century. 8
40
flit 110
THE ANANDA CHANDRA INSCRIPTION
This priceless document not only lists the personalities of each monarch,
but also some of the major events of every reign, and is the focus of this
work. 9
Since the pillar which is now sited at the Shitthaung pagoda [the stupa
which [allegedly] contains eighty thousand Buddha images], the Inscription
has variously been called either the Shitthaung Pillar, the Mrohaung [another
name for the town of Mrauk U] Inscription, or the Ananda Chandra Inscrip-
tion.
As the earliest texts on the eastern panel may be attributed to either
Bhumi or Bhuti Chandra, the pillar should in theory be named after one of
them. However, for our present purpose, it will henceforth be referred to as
the Inscription, since we will be concerned primarily with the period of Ananda
Chandra's reign.
So far, the early history of this inscription pillar is a blank.
It was first mentioned in the Rakhaing chronicles when it was conveyed
from Vaishali on the orders of king Mong Ba Gree (reigned 1531-1553) to his
Shitthaung pagoda at Mrauk U, nine miles to the south. 10 Various dates are
given for this event, such as 1534, 1535 and 1536."' ,M »
The heavy pillar, together with its supplementary fixtures, were doubtless
placed on specially constructed carts. Another source said that the king's
elephant was used to carry the monolith to Mrauk U; surely a near impossible
task for an animal to undertake, trudging for nine miles with this immense
load?" The north entrance of the pagoda then became the Inscription's new
home. On the death of Mong Ba Gree in 1553, the pillar was neglected, and
thereafter for over four centuries abandoned and finally used as a gatepost.
[When more progressive times prevail, the inscription pillar should be
returned to its original site in Vaishali. As things stand, at this moment in
time, this is too much to hope for].
But this is no ordinary epigraphic record, it was once part of a ceremonial
tarana (portal) bristling with mystical connotations. The components forming
this doorway were the pillar itself, a lintel, an octagonal column and a swing-
ing gate.
With regard to the age of the first three objects, Gutman's interpretation
appears to be the most reliable. She has suggested that as the material used
was red sandstone, she proposed a date anterior to the middle of the seventh
century. Evidently, after this date its use fell out of favour in Arakan. 15
41
; iiiiitj
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
Next on the throne was Dharma Sura (possibly named after the monarch
of the Survasenas whose capital was Mathura on the Yumuna River; Sura
was also the name of a king of the Chandra vamsa (Lunar Race). Dharma Sura
reigned circa 636- 649. As his first name Dharma suggests, he appears to
have been of a religious inclination. During his reign the realm enjoyed pros-
perity. He ruled for thirteen years, and being a devout monarch he entered
Svarga.
This brief dynasty which held sway for forty-nine years may have ended
with Dharma Sura.
The interregnum
It is a tremendous shame that apart from the document relating to Ananda
Chandra, the rest of the texts engraved on various parts of the monolith have
not been translated.
Johnston felt that many of the smaller inscriptions contained lists of names,
which he assumed were of local lords, two of which he could decipher. These
were the mysterious Prabha Chandra and Bhupalah Sri Candakeyura
Varmrna.^
Perhaps, one day, all will be revealed as to who these personages were,
but one should not hold one's breath.
The Sri Dharmaraj-andaja vamsa (dynasty) (circa 649-729).
A new and powerful ruling family then took command of the situation in the
kingdom.
Johnston felt the above dynastic name implied that their ancestry could be
traced back to Brahma and Manu, the latter being the ancestral progenitor of
the ten lines of kings of classical India. It inferred they were of the noble
kshatriya (warrior) caste. 5 Sircar added that Sri Dharmaraj-andaja vamsa
meant a succession of distinguished and righteous rulers belonging to the
Dev-andaja clan (the deity Garuda (the sacred Brahminy kite: Haliastur Indus)
which is also the vehicle of Vishnu. This was indicated and affirmed in the
Inscription by the Garuda motif; the Gupta monarchs also employed this
device)."
And for the first time, thanks to the compiler of the Inscription, we have
evidence of the identity of the new ruling family and their origins.
54
THE DYNASTIES MENTIONED IN THE INSCRIPTION
In verse 64, he clearly states that Ananda Chandra was a descendant of
the Saiva-Andhra monarehs 7 [presumably of Vengi ?] whose kingdom was
located between the Godavari and the Krishna Rivers, and close to the Bay
of Bengal.
Johnston was unsure, and felt it was a dynasty based somewhere in the
Deccan [an immense region of middle India].
It is interesting that as late as the 7* century, ambitious members of some
of India's princely houses were crossing the Bay to Arakan with the intention
of carving out a kingdom for themselves. And they succeeded.
The founder of this new dynasty was Vajra Sakti ("The Thunderbolt of
Karttikeya") reigned circa 649-665. 8 In addition to having been descended
from the Saiva-Andhra kings, he is also described as one who was of the
Deva family, indicating that his mother was a princess of the Deva dynasty;
we have here a scion of two prominent ruling houses. Unfortunately, this
particular Deva dynasty cannot as yet be traced; the only Devas this author
is aware of ruled in the kingdom of Harikela, part of Samatata, and which
came into prominence well after Vajra Sakti/s reign.
Vajra Sakti who was in power for sixteen years was renowned for his
dedication to religion, and therefore, according to the text, comparable to a
Vajrin (Indra); had he been of the Theravada persuasion, as is now sug-
gested, would such a comparison have been used? The mention of
danasiladisamyukta indicated that he was a follower of the Mahayana school
of Buddhism 9 — doubtless with a dash of Brahmanism.
His successor, who reigned from circa 665-701 (thirty-six years), was the
devout Sri Dharma Vijaya (named after one of the Saiva-Andhra monarehs
who was [according to the Inscription] one of his ancestors; he could also
have been called after a ruler of Ayodhaya who was of the Surya vamsa
(Solar Race). Vijaya means victory and Dharma Vijaya indicates a person
who had overcome human weaknesses.
This monarch was a pious devotee of the "Three Jewels", and it should be
noted that when he passed away, he entered not Svarga but ascended into
lokasukham Tusitam (Tusita heaven).
References to the "Three Jewels" and "Tusita heaven" reveal that he, too,
was a Mahayanist, which San Tha Aung fervently denies. In fact, Rakhaing
chronicles identify Dharma Vijaya as a Theravada Buddhist and the Con-
venor of the Fourth Buddhist Synod allegedly held at Vaishali, in Arakan [see
55
uitnfi
VA1SHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
Chapter Eleven for further details on this incredible piece of Rakhaing reli-
gious spin].
And here, too, thanks to Mitchiner's researches, can be quoted the sur-
prising and additional information to Dharma Vijaya's long and successful
reign. Mitchiner has been able to prove, by numismatic evidence, that this
monarch had expansionist tendencies, backed presumably by military might.
He marched into Samatata and seized that kingdom from its Kara rulers
[Dani said that Pattikera was the classical name of the capital of Samatata].
The annexation of this kingdom will certainly be news to Rakhaing histo-
rians who will no doubt claim another triumph for a member of 'their' race.
It would seem that Dharma Vijaya ("The Victorious One") was aptly
named.
Infuriatingly, little information is available as to when this significant event
occurred, or the length of time Samatata was under the yoke of Vaishali. But
with the death of Dharma Vijaya, which Mitchiner believes to be circa 680 [as
opposed to Sircar's circa 701], in Samatata power passed into the hands of
the Khadgas who founded the kingdom of Harikela 10 [they were in turn
replaced by the Devas].
With the loss of its rich vassal state, Vaishali probably began its slow
decline.
Unusually, the Inscription then revealed the relationship between two
rulers.
Narendra ("Monarch of Men") Vijaya (circa 701-704) who reigned for
two years and nine months, is identified as the son of Sri Dharma Vijaya.
Narendra Vijaya may have been a youth without progeny, for the line of
succession then reverted back to the son of Vajra Sakti, the founder of this
dynasty.
Johnston was uncertain of the new king's title and thought that it was
either Viranarendra Chandra or Sri Dharma Chandra. Sircar interpreted it as
Sri Dharma ("Upholder of the Religious Law") Chandra (circa 704-720). This
monarch, who was the father of Ananda Chandra, is described as having
descended from h-anvaya meaning that his forebears were royalty; Johnston
read this as "Isa" meaning Shiva.
The text described his attainments in glowing terms and indicated that
militarily he, like Dharma Vijaya, was dominant. He reigned for sixteen years,
56
THE CITY OF VAISHALI
However, during my visits in 2002 and 2005, enquiries among the villagers
revealed they had not seen any.
According to Mitchiner, the economy of Vaishali prospered until the 6*
century, thereafter the route of the silver trade bypassed the kingdom to
Samatata, further north, causing an economic downturn locally. Neverthe-
less, he also said that during the reign of Sri Dharma Vijaya (circa 665-701)
Vaishali extended its sovereignty to Samatata where his coinage was in cir-
culation. 3
If there was indeed a decline, there was no hint of this in the confident
tone of the Inscription, perhaps the silver trade had been replaced by a more
lucrative commerce in rice for which the land is still famous. The text implied
that under Ananda Chandra it was a prosperous realm, and that many re-
ligious buildings were constructed and lavish gifts bestowed on religious
establishments at home and abroad.
Structures
Amongst the ruins of Vaishali, the prevalence of dressed stone bases for
wooden pillars reveal that the majority of the structures, religious and secu-
lar, were of timber. The carved depressions in the stone sockets indicate that
the columns tended to be square, with a deep rounded centre inserted into
the base for stability.
More substantial materials were employed on devaprasada thirthika (reli-
gious edifices) such as the Buddhist stupas and the Brahmanical temples-
While the earlier buildings were constructed by sthapati (architects) from the
subcontinent who no doubt were versed in the Sthapatya veda (science of
architecture), their descendents evolved indigenous styles as evidenced by the
decorative stone fragments excavated.
Gutman mentioned in her thesis that one of these builders left behind at
the Mahamuni shrine a beautifully cast iron plummet, similar to a specimen
now on display in the British Museum. As the latter, datable to the sixth
century CE was excavated from the Surma riverbed in East Bengal, the former,
too, may have originated from somewhere in that region. Although this au-
thor was told in 2002 that this important instrument was now in a monastery
at Kyauk Taw, sadly, all traces of it have disappeared; it is probably now in
some foreign collection.
81
:iii)UtiMltl Hilild flvifi
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
By the time of the Inscription in 729, the places of worship in Vaishali
would doubtless have increased.
A dedicatory inscription of Vira Chandra Deva (reigned circa 575-578)
stated that he had constructed one hundred stupas. Considering that he
ruled for only three years, building work would have been frenetic. Then
again, these structures were probably votive stupas of brick or stone, about
four to eight feet high, some of which have survived. Models of this type can
still be encountered all over Eastern India, especially at the Mahabodhi tem-
ple, Bodh-Gaya. 4
Other monarchs from this dynasty, and the ones which followed, also
commissioned shrines and temples, since it was an established tradition for a
ruler to build at least one religious edifice during his reign. As the region had
been under the control of several dynasties, the number of Brahmanic temples
and Buddhist stupas were probably considerable. This assumption has been
confirmed by San Shwe Bu who observed in the 1920s that the area was "full
of ancient monuments now mostly hidden by jungle." 5 Sadly, few now re-
main as the bricks and stones have since been salvaged and put to other uses.
Regrettably, even though none of the buildings of the Vaishali period are
extant, one can obtain an idea from a few surviving models of the type of
Buddhist structures which once dominated the skyline of the old capital. The
November-December 2005 issue of Arts of Asia, page 122 (no. 41), contained
an illustration of a replica of a superb bronze shrine, which though incor-
rectly described as early 18 ,h century, is of the late Vaishali period, or possibly
earlier. As the architectural design is comparable to that prevalent in Orissa,
it indicates that some architects from that region were responsible for many
of the structures in Vaishali.
The convex-sided shikhara is crowned by a amalaka, a globular grooved
finial with ribbed sides like the Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis), the
cardinal points are decorated with smaller facsimiles. These amalaka have also
been incorporated on to surviving smaller stone stupas of the period. The
graduating roof is in five tiers, with the first and largest being ornamented by
rows of tiny kneeling figures depicted in the act of paying homage. Other
decorations consist of lines of quatrefoil motifs. Buddhas, either standing or
in bhumisparsa mudra within kotlhaka (s) (gate-chambers or porches) are flanked
by elegant dvarapala(s) while other divinities which appear to be of Mahayanist
origins, occupy niches.
82
I ttlJMIOlilltttlO
THE CITY OF VAISHAU
This superb object was originally installed in a relic chamber of a pagoda
built by royalty, but had fallen victim to desecrators of relic chambers, no
doubt organized by an antiques dealer in Yangon, and now languishes in a
private collection abroad.
Previously published artefacts from this period have been unimpressive,
but this exceptional example proves beyond doubt that there were craftsmen
capable of creating splendid works of art.
Models of shrines and Buddha images claimed to be of the Vaishali period
have also appeared in The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan by San Tha Aung
in his enthusiastic zeal to push back the antiquity of the city, oblivious to the
fact that the architecture and iconography all date to a time after the 12 ,h
century.* Just because these objects were discovered at Vaishali does not
necessarily validate them as being 'of pre 8 th century provenance. The former
capital was still a provincial outpost and a place of pilgrimage well into the
14 th century, but by then Brahmanism and the Mahayana form of Buddhism
had been replaced by the Theravada version.
Understandably, by the time of the Inscription, many of the older religious
structures built by former rulers were already in ruins. The text stated that
Ananda Chandra had undertaken their restoration, indicating that conserva-
tion of sorts appears to have been known; in the process it also gained the
much sought after religious merit for the pious restorer.
Arakan is lashed by monsoon rains from the Bay of Bengal for several
months each year, and perhaps the brickwork, despite its stone facing, was
substandard. This is very much in evidence at the excavated sites where the
surviving masonry reveals large bricks stacked one above the other in a hap-
hazard manner. Similar shoddy workmanship can also be seen at the
contemporary Pyu city sites in Myanmar proper.
Ananda Chandra was not only a restorer of ruins, he was also a munifi-
cent patron of Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu institutions. AH those endowed
by him were prefixed with his name, including an undisclosed number of
vihara (s) (monasteries) for the Buddhist Arya-Sangha. These were registered
as Anandodaya vihara ("Monastery of Ananda, the Compassionate") and
staffed by dasa (male) and dasi (female) slaves; land and cattle were allocated
for the use of the entire monastic community.
He also built a substantial mat ha (priory) for the Brahmin priests which he
named Anandamadhava; this was near the residence of the Brahmana of
83
■
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
In both surviving sculptures, male and female wear their elaborately dressed
long hair, secured by diadems, in a large bun on top of their heads. The
earlobes are weighted down by heavy cone-shaped earrings, reminiscent of
those seen in sculptures from early Cambodia and Indonesia. Jewelled orna-
ments are worn. The costumes are not complex.
Although the workmanship is unsophisticated, nevertheless the robes,
accessories and hair styles are invaluable as they represent the mode of dress
at court at the time these images were carved.
Among the other deities on view is an image of either Avalokitesvara or
Vishnu, although its four arms are missing, the padma, one of its attributes
has survived.
Many of these sculptures are not the accumulation of centuries, but are
the work of a master and his assistants, and were probably undertaken at
about the same time. This is indicated in the details, such as the features,
costumes, jewellery and elaborate hairstyles which are all identical.
The portrait of Bhikshatanamurti
One superb piece identified by Gutman as a Bodhisattva, has had several
interpretations foisted on it by recent Rakhaing writers. Shwe Zan, in par-
ticular, is adamant that it represents the legendry Sanda Thuriya, the alleged
builder of the Mahamuni Shrine to house the bronze image of Buddha. This
is despite the lack of an original inscription identifying the sculpture as such.
"See what you want to see" appears to be the maxim amongst the inhab-
itants of Rakhaing Land.
On inspecting this superb carving, a competent scholar will immediately
notice the pair of kundala (earrings) which it sports, and which do not match.
This identifies it as a representation of Shiva in his aspect as Bhikshatanamurti,
the patron deity of ascetics. While one earring symbolises Shiva's linga, the
other, round and perforated, represents Parvati's yoni.
Bhikshatanamurti is adorned with a superb hara (necklace), and an equally
splendid waist band. A long beaded yajnopavita [a type of sacred thread)
hangs down to the knees and is taken up at the back. The diaphanous dhoti
is secured at the hips by a belt. A sash is draped across the thighs and
knotted stylishly at the right hip, from where it falls in graceful loops — a
typical Gupta affectation.
132
I ItUMliUilBiUlO
THE MAHAMUN1 SHRINE AND MUSEUM
The glory of this sculpture is in its exquisitely tranquil face and elaborate
hairstyle. While the rest of the head, which is backed by a large halo, is
covered in small curls, framed by an ornamental keshabandha (forehead band),
the long hair from the crown has been tightly braded and arranged in three
tiers of loops. The style is reminiscent of those in use in the early kingdoms
of Cambodia; part of the coiffure of a seventh century head of Hari-hara (an
amalgamation of Shiva and Vishnu) from Prasat Phnom Da and now in the
Musee Guiment, Paris, sports a similar design.
Regrettably, for people such as Shwe Zan, their self imposed tunnel-vision
precludes them from widening their knowledge regarding Hindu iconogra-
phy or the Brahmanic gods. Anything Indian is usually looked down on by
Rakhaing Buddhists who feel immensely superior. This superiority, which the
Myanmar are also guilty of, can be compared to the way the Raj sahibs and
memsahibs treated their native subjects.
Three mysterious deities at Oak-pon-taung
Less than a mile to the east of the Mahamuni Shrine, is a range of hills, one
of which is called Oak-pon-taung ("Hill-of-the-mound-of-bricks")- The de-
scriptive title indicates there were once ruins here, perhaps a monastic complex.
Conversely, there may have been kilns where bricks were made. When I
visited the spot in 2005, several stone architectural fragments, large decapi-
tated images of Buddha, and bricks, were being excavated by the monks of
the nearby monastery.
There was also a newly built shrine containing three mystifying figures,
which on closer examination of their ornaments, revealed the work to be
from the same period as the sculptures at the Mahamuni shrine. Regrettably,
and to my intense irritation, the trio had been insensitively renovated, thereby
obliterating the original details.
Earlier in 1988, a chapter in Myauk U Ian hnuti had mentioned "several
ancient stone images" which could be observed at the foot of this particular
hill. As it described the sculptures as being "seik htu" ("stuck-into-the-carth-
and-erected"), the expressive phrase implied that they were to be seen as they
had been left for centuries, either standing or lying on the ground.
In 1988, the carvings were obviously untouched and in their original form.
The abbot of the present monastery, then decided to take matters in hand and
133
.i.uhiHiiiifliiiin
VA1SHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
have the trio 'brought up to date' so that they now look brand new and
covered in cheap gold paint.
When I complained — as I usually do when confronted with such des-
ecration* the young 'guardian' of the shrine looked incredulously at me, and
could not understand what all the fuss was about. After all, as far as he was
concerned, by performing this 'meritorious' restoration, an otherwise dam-
aged collection of sculptures had been elevated to a pristine condition — this
is the present attitude of the Rakhaing and the Myanmar — even among the
educated.
As the identity of the trio is no longer known, the monks have expediently
provided them with the epithet "Bo Bo Gyi nat yoke myar" (Great Grandfather
spirits); this is a popular title by which unidentifiable divine beings thought
to be 'ancient' are recognized throughout the country.
Who did these figures originally represent? Could they have been moved
from the Mahamuni shrine at some point in time, or was there a separate cult
centre at the bottom of this hill?
These are questions which need to be answered.
Apart from the usual nonsense, no one at the site could provide any
satisfactory information.
A notice board dated January 1, 2003, warned pilgrims:
"Scented water must not to be sprayed on the images; pebbles are not to be
placed in their hands; food offerings are prohibited; candles must not be lit;
no graffiti on the walls".
The figures had evidently been remodelled recently and the shrine opened
to the public.
It was clear the abbot of the monastery did not want the sculptures to be
propitiated by Buddhist pilgrims, as they were once Hindu deities of some
sort and not Buddhist spirits. Had the pilgrims done so, God knows how their
actions would have effected their spiritual well being - something I should
have asked the abbot!
1 was at the Mahamuni Shrine in 2002, but had no knowledge of the
existence of these statues. Had I visited the present site then, perhaps I may
have had the opportunity to photograph the trio in their original form - and
now it is too late.
134
tlHG
THE MAHAMUNI SHRINE AND MUSEUM
The Rakhaing craftsman who undertook the 'restoration' had covered the
rough stone surfaces in plaster. Whether he retained the original mudra of
each or had changed them at the direction of the abbot is anyone's guess. At
present, the position of the hands of the trio look remarkably neat, as if
deliberately rearranged to form an artistic and complementary 'set'. All three
have one of their hands cupped, as if it was meant to hold either a bowl or
an object. The gestures are quite unlike any of the carvings at the Mahamuni
Shrine.
Fortunately, the restorer had preserved some of the identifying features
which can also be seen on the corresponding Mahamuni sculptures. These are
the distinctive diadems, huge earrings, the strange wing-like appendages behind
the shoulders, the ample neckband, armlets and the characteristic belt with
its curious buckle-like loop arrangement in the centre. On the other hand, if
the images had each been originally sculpted with a rounded back slab, simi-
lar to their counterparts, these appear to have been removed.
At the Mahamuni Shrine and its environs, full scale systematic excava-
tions and research, unhindered by present biased Buddhist beliefs and
superstitions, invariably orchestrated by the local monks and trustees, need to
be undertaken urgently.
Endnotes
1. Gutman, "Between India and Southeast Asia" etc., p. 12.
2. Forchhammer, A Report on the History of Arakan, etc., p. 14.
3. Gutman, Burma's Lost Kingdoms etc., p. 34.
4. Chan Htwan Oung, "The Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan", pp. 262-265, and San Shwe Bu, "The
Story of Mahamuni". pp. 225-229. Other Rakhaing sources also claimed that the image was
destroyed.
5. Thaw Kaung, The Selected Writings of U Thaw Kaung; The Mahamuni, p. 133. He was quoting
Gutman, Burma's Lost Kingdoms etc., pp. 7-10.
6. Seckel. D., The Art of Buddhism, p. 159.
7. San Shwe Bu, "Notes and Reviews: The Story of Mahamuni", JBRS, p. 228, 1916.
8. Aung Tha U, Rakhaing Yazawin, p. 135.
9. Myar Aung, Thamaing-dair-hma Mrauk U etc., p. 134.
10. Tun Shwe Khine, A Guide to Mahamuni, p. 10, 1994.
11. Aung Tha U, Rakhaing Yazawin, 136.
12. Ibid.p. 137.
13. Ibid, pp. 137-138.
14. Gutman, Burma's Lost Kingdoms etc., p. 35.
15. Ibid p. 35.
16. Forchammer, A Report on the History of Arakan etc., p. 6. [sections from Forchammer's account
were plagiarized by Tun Shwe Khaing in his Guide to the Mahamuni, 1994.
135
witUilllD
GAapfer Unirieen
The Buddhist Council Hill at Vaishali
0n arrival at the site of the former capital, one runs immediately into
controversy.
A little to the north east of the present village of Vaishali is a seventy foot
high hillock known as Thanga-yana-tin-kon ("Hill-where-the-Buddhist-Coun-
cil-was-held") it was here, according to Rakhaing chronicles that the Fourth
Buddhist Maha Sangiti(s) (Great Council) was convened in 638 CE; 1 a claim
which is pure religious propaganda from a later age, and a confused one at
that.
According to local accounts, the event occurred during the reign of Thiri
Dharma Wizaya, a name which possibly equates with Sri Dharma Vijaya
(reigned circa 665-701) in the Inscription, in which case the dates do not
correspond. According to Mitchiner, this was the famous conqueror who
annexed and extended his authority to Samatata in Bengal.
If we are to accept the date 638 as shown in the local chronicles, it should
place this event at the time of Dharma Sura (circa 636-649) of the Inscrip-
tion.
Unfortunately, all the dates in the Rakhaing chronicles cannot be recon-
ciled with those based on evidence accepted by international scholars.
Regarding these Buddhist Councils, the sequence of events is as follows
(several versions, together with dates, are known, and this is but one.]
The First Council was held under Mahakasyapa, at Rajagriha, in modern
Rajgir, Bihar, in 473 BCE.
The Second Council under the auspices of king Kalasoka, also known as
Kakavarnin, at Vaishali, Bihar, in 336 BCE.
137
;i.)ihn«nivdi(iin
VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN
The Third Council was organized during the reign of Ashoka, at Pataliputra
(Patna) sometime between 274-236 BCE.
The Fourth Council under the patronage of Kanishka (circa 78-101 CE) ,
the Kushan king, in Kashmir.
Historically, the Fourth Council was conducted not in the kingdom of the
Chandras, in Arakan, but by the Theravada Buddhists in Sri Lanka. The
Mahayana Buddhists, whom the Theravadins considered 'heathens' then
organized their own event either at Jalandhar or Kashmir in about 100 CE.
In Arakan, there is here either a deliberate attempt to mislead, or to be
more charitable, confusion, on the part of the native chroniclers over the
association of the words "Vaishali" and "Buddhist Council", leading them to
take for granted that the location was their Waythali. Over the centuries, the
vast majority of the Rakhaing historians had probably never heard of the
original Vaishali in India, believing that their Waythali was the only one.
It is unclear why the Rakhaing decided to assign 'their' council as the
Fourth.
As stated above, what they failed to realize was that the site where the
original council was held in 336 BCE was at Vaishali, Bihar, after Buddha's
parinirvana at Kusinagara in circa 486 or 483 BCE, and it was designated the
Second Council [even at Vaishali, Bihar, it is still not known in which part
of the city this event took place]. 2
More importantly, that this so-called momentous occasion was held in
Arakan is not recognised in other Buddhist countries.
Although the true facts are known today, such distortions continue to be
fostered by unscrupulous monks in an attempt to draw pilgrims and, more
importantly, their donations, to the locality.
Here it must be said that San Tha Aung who normally would not have
hesitated in bringing such a significant event to the attention of the English
speaking world, was obviously aware of this charade, and thought it prudent
not to include it in a chapter on the history of the Buddhist Councils. His
comment was simply:
"These were the Four Great Councils held in different part[$] of India after the
parinirvana of Buddha."*
According to U Khaymarthiri, the present abbot at the Thanga-yana-tin
hill, the supposed Council at Vaishali in Arakan was attended by 1000 monks
138
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Mrauk U, the last capital city of Rakhine dynasty. It has attained its highest prosperity 48 kings for 335 long years, stand at 20.25' N Latitude and 093.11'E Longitude. It was founded by the King Mong Saw Mon in 1430 AD. The city being well fortified with 19 miles long fortification walls, Moats and natural barriers since its first establishment.The old city is just 40 Miles away by river from Sittway (Akyab).
Mrauk U is an ornament of the Rakhine culture. Its name suggests the fulfillment of endeavours. Between 1430 AD and 1784 AD it was the last captial of the powerful Rakhine kings where Rakhine culture had its full bloom. Before Mrauk U, several other former royal cities, Dhanyawaddy, Vesali, Sambwet, Pyinsa, Parein, Launggret, Khrit and Nayyinzaya- taungngu had flourished from generation to generation for many years. Geographically, Mrauk U lies at the head of a tributary, Kaladan(Gissapanadi) River; about 45 miles from the west coast, but the largest sea-going ships of that period could reach it through a network of deep creeks by which it was surrounded.The position of Mrauk U in the Bay of Bengal, with both land and sea routes to the east and west, resulted in the development of its commercial and cultural center which later emerged as a highly flourishing country because of its strategic location between India and South East Asia.
The golden days of Mrauk U city, those of 16th and 17th centuries, were contemporary to the days of Tudor kings, the Moghuls, the Ayuthiya kings and Ava (Inwa), Taungoo and Hanthawaddy kings of Myanmar. Mrauk U was cosmopolitan city, fortified by a 30-kilometer long fortification and an intricate net of moats and canals. At the centre of the city was the Royal Place, looming high over the surrounding area like an Asian Acropolis. Waterways formed by canals and creeks earned the fame of distinct resemblance to Venice. Mrauk U offers some of the richest archaeological sites in South-East Asia. While Bagan is considered as the city of pagodas. It is yet another site in Myanmar with old temples and pagodas, but built in styles different from those of Bagan.The last stronghold of Mrauk U kings could be truely considered as the fortress city in Myanmar. " In durability, architectural skill and ornamentation, Mrauk U temples far surpass those on the banks of Irrawaddy " remarked Dr.Forchhammer, a renowned archeologist, in his book entitled "Arakan". Mrauk U is a historical site where visitors can also witness edifices, sculptures, moats, citywalls, fortresses, reservoirs, city gates etc., still standing in various parts of the city as a mute evidence to the glory of an erstwhile Rakhine Kingdom. Mrauk U, a fine last royal capital of Rakhine has scenic beauty and historical remains, which are inextricable and remarkable. Innumerable pagodas belonging to all ages can be found throughout the city. Everywhere one looks within Mrauk U city wall on every mound, every field and every hill are Buddha images, temples, Sima and pagodas.The city offers the visitor many chances to study the cultural and traditional heritage handed down to the present day Rakhine generation by their forefathers. Mrauk U can rightfully be claimed as the "Open-air Museum" of the arts and culture of the people of Rakhine.Once, more than six million shrines and pagodas flourished and there is rarely a hilltop that does not adorn itself with one pagoda or another.
After the annexation of Arakan (Rakhine) by the British, the capital was shifted to Sittwe (Akyab): since that time Mrauk-U was known by the people as Mrohaung (Old City). The name Mrohaung was given by the British when they shifted their seat of administration to Sittwe in 1826. The original name was restored in 1979. The city is just 40 miles away by river from Sittwe and the trip takes 3 to 4 hours. There are daily flights to Sittwe from Yangon which take 2 hours via Thandwe and 1 hour directly. The boat departs from a jetty in the Sattroegya, a tributary creek of the Kaladan(Gissapanadi) river and on the way there are many places of interest to be seen along the river.The gateway to Mrauk-U is Thantara village from where the undulating hills of the city with white temples and pagodas on their tops appear within sight. The Thinghanadi creek is the city's life-blood and the boat journey ends at Aungdatt wharf.
The stone pagodas were built three and four centuries ago and many have been totally neglected for the last 150 years: the sides of the stone blocks fit compactly and are joined with cement thus resisting the absorption of ficus which are capable of reducing a brick pagoda into a shapeless heap of bricks in a few years.The pagodas and temples built or renovated during the Myanmar governor’s rule (after the fall of Mrauk-U 1785-1825) followed the tradition of the Kunhaung architecture, with smaller pagodas built at the corners of the lower basement of a pagoda; bricks were usually used in making the receding arches. U Mra Wa and Shwegu Daung pagodas are the two examples that still survive. Gold and silver coins serve as the priceless heritage of the Mrauk-U period. The tradition of coin-making was handed down from the Vesali kings who started minting coins around the fifth century. The coins so far found are of one denomination only. Inscribed on the coins are the title of the ruling king and his year of coronation; coins before 1638 had Rakhine inscriptions on one side and Persian and Nagari inscriptions on the other. The inclusion of the foreign inscriptions was meant for the easy acceptance by the neighbouring countries and the Arab traders. Twenty-three types of silver coins and three types of gold coins have so far been found. All the kings who ascended the throne issued coins. City walls, gates, settlements, monastery sites, fortresses, garrisons and moats are the other priceless heritages left to the safe keeping of today's Rakhine people. Stone rubbles of proud mansions of that period are also priceless reminders of Rakhine glory.
It is no wonder that Mrauk U is properly known as the "Land of Pagodas" and Europeans remarked Mrauk U as "The Golden City". The Rakhine of those days were proud of Mrauk U. They were entirely satisfied to be the inhabitants of Mrauk U. The history shows what happened in the city in early times.
The Shitthaung Pagoda
About half a mile north of the palace site is the Shitthaung Pagoda or the Shrine of 80,000 images. It stands on a promontory half way up to the west side of a hillock named Phokhaung Taung. The donor of the Shitthaung was Minbargyi, the most powerful king of the MraukU Dynasty. According to the stone script inscription he was also called as Minbin and reigned Rakhine from 1531 to 1553 A.D. The King built this remarkable Pagoda in 1535 A.D after the successful defense against the Portuguese attack on the City of Mrauk-U.
One thousand architects and workmen had built the pagoda for a year. The skill and art displayed in its construction and ornamentation are remarkable. 'Besides, we may observe here about the maze-like layout of this pagoda. In the accounts of this curious plan, some foreigners remarked that the Shitthaung Pagoda was built alike a fortress. The real purpose of the pagoda was for prayer, some rituals of initiation, and some of the King's ceremonies, which were usually held secretly.
It was constructed six feet thick of solid sandstone and like "rock cave tunnel". No mortar was used in the construction and stones were connected with stone brackets. The first platform appears to contain two small pagodas all built of sandstone. They were said by tradition to have been built by the donor of the Shitthaung Pagoda, King Minbin. They were called Nay Htwet Para (Sun Arise Pagoda) and Nay Win Para (Sun Set Pagoda). Nay-Htwet Para is octagonal; the sides are concave and the entrance faces the east. Another small pagoda is Nay Win Para, a stupa shape with a circular base. The King Minbin built these pagodas to show his dominion and autocracy.
The inner temple court east of the main shrine is occupied by a wooden prayer-hall which houses innumerable Buddha images. Before entering the main hall is a stone pillar with inscriptions in Rakhine characters. According to the inscription, the pillar was engraved by order of King Minrazargyi in 1593 A.D. In the upper pillar there is a sculpture of the King and his four ministers. Close to the inscribed pillar lies an image of King Minbin, the donor of this Shitthaung Pagoda. Opposite the entrance is a main image of Buddha, seated on a throne with /bumiphasa mudra/. The image is 9 feet in height. The central pagoda measures 160 feet long, 124 feet broad, and 86 feet high. On the north and south walls stand at regular intervals circular, turret-like pagodas. There are one bigger and fourteen smaller ones on the north and a bigger one and seventeen smaller ones on the south and were built of brick; between each turret a stone slab is erected into the wall. Both sides of the slab contain sculptures in bold relief; the side facing the inner temple usually represents an image of Buddha, the outer side an ogre, naga or mythical birds or beasts. One depicts a cobra with spreading hood holding a lotus flower in its mouth. The shrine itself has a gallery all-round the structure and a dark passage, which leads to the inner chambers. The outer wall contains at regular intervals arched passages; each holds two sitting life-size images of Buddha; they are placed back to back. The inner wall consists of well-hewn blocks of stone cut over its whole length (312') into six tiers of figures. The corner was placed with large four central figures, such as King Brahmans of SE corner, Thagra-min surrounded by his four queens of NE corner, Satu- Lokapala of NW corner, the donor, King Minbin surrounded by ministers and queens of SW corner. The lowest belt of the pagoda represents men in native (Rakhine) costume, manner and tradition, in the manners of wrestling, boxing, dancing, playing, and general merry-making. The first, second, third, fourth, and fifth belts depict the 550 earlier lives of Buddha. There are over a thousand sculptures.
The topmost girdle shows human figures, male and female in praying attitude. From these inscribed sculptures one can learn something about old Rakhine musical instruments and traditional dances. Along the gallery, each corner and each side was provided with both female and male figures of Vasundhra. Therefore, Shitthaung was also regarded as a sima (ordination hall). Along the other two inner galleries are deposited hundreds of Buddha images of varying sizes. A sculpted Buddha's foot-print is placed in the last passage. It is plain; there are no figure-prints on the sole of an upturned foot.
An Evidence of Early Buddhism in the Shitthaung Pagoda.
The Shitthaung Pillar : The pillar is very well known and is situated at the entrance of the Shitthaung Pagoda. It is said to have been brought from Vesali to Mrauk-U, and placed at this site by King Minbin, in 1535 A.D who reigned over Rakhine from 1513 to 1553 A.D. It had fallen during the bombardment in the Second World War and has been re-erected in a cage near the same entrance. The pillar is square, rising to a height of 10 feet; each side is 2' 4" broad. Three sides are covered with inscriptions in Sanskrit; the inscription on the north side is also badly damaged; the western face inscription is best preserved. The south side has not been inscribed. Dr. Johnston was the first to read the western face inscription fully. It was dated on paleographic grounds as the beginning of the 8th century A.D. His readings reveal a list of kings who ruled in ancient Rakhine. Although the eastern side of pillar is now completely illegible it can be dated between 3rd century and 6th century A.D. It is considered to be the inscription of early Rakhine kingdoms, mostly Dhanyawaddy.
Stone pillar of the Shithaung Pagoda. There is an octagonal red sandstone column, 8' 10" high above the ground. The circumference around the base measures 72" (9" to each side); towards the apex there is a band decoration consisting of an enclosed row of dots and a double lotus petal motif, with a major petal at each of the eight corners.
Stone slab. Close to the pillar lies a large stone slab, 12' long, 4' 2" broad and 10-12" thick. At the lower end, depicted in relief, is a wavy line suggestive of water, from which rises a right-vaulted winged conch shell with a lotus growing from the aperture, the tip of the petals touching the outer edge of an ornately carved wheel symbolizing dhammacakka , (the Wheel of the Law) its outer rim enclosing a circle of dots, and the inner rim comprising a double lotus petal motif.The design appears to be emblematic of Brahmanism (the conch), which produced Buddhism (the lotus flower), the dhammacakka. On the other hand, the design suggests the fertility and prosperity (lotus), which arises from the waters (wave and conch) when the Cakravartin , Monarch (wheel) holds sway. The motif constantly appears in -ancient Rakhine's art. At the upper end of the wheel is a square hole sunk into the stone, 5" deep, 2' 4" long, and 2' 8" broad; next follows a circular, cup-like hole, 4" deep and 6" across the opening; the reverse of the stone is only a rough-hewn surface. As the sides of the inscribed pillar also measure 2'4", Dr.Forchhammer suggested that the stone slab, which must have been from 18-20' long, but is broken off above the cup-like hollow, was originally a lintel or architrave, the square hole capped the inscribed pillar forming the left-hand post of the entrance gate; the circular hollow received the revolving axis of a swinging door; that portion of the lintel which exhibits the dhammacakka, the lotus and conch, protruded over the north-side of the inscribed pillar to counterbalance the weight of the opposite part of the slab (now broken) which formed the actual lintel over the entrance, the octagonal pillar constituted the right-hand post of the entrance. The construction of the gate forcibly calls to mind the "turning of the Wheel of the Law", the essential function of the Buddhist Cakravartin King, to whom was given the power to regulate the celestial and terrestrial forces in order to control the coming of the rains which would ensure the continuing prosperity of the Kingdom. Hence, the Cakra of the lintel was depicted as merging into pillar, on which, as we shall see, the continuity of the dhamma of the Rakhine Cakravartin Kings was recorded. The form of the pillar on the opposite side is also not without significance. In common with other pillars associated with Cakravartin Kingship, it is eight-sided, symbolizing the eight directions of the macrocosmic country and the macrocosmic universe (see. "Asokan" pillars). The decoration around the upper portion is identical with that of the dakkra on the lintel, the lotus petal in each corner suggesting that the effect of the royal dhamma was to be felt in each of the eight corners. Its significance was still remembered in the 16th century, when King Minbin had it erected and built at his remarkable royal shrine, the Shitthaung Pagoda. But all were ruined during the Second World War.
The Andaw Shrine
The Andaw Shrine, in which is enshrined a tooth-relic of Buddha, stands at a distance of 86 feet to the northeast of the Shitthaung Pagoda. Min Hla Raza originally built this shrine in 1521 A.D. The King of Mrauk-U, Minrazagyi, rebuilt it in 1596 A.D. The central tower of the shrine contains the tooth-relic of Buddha, which is said to have been obtained from Sri Lanka by King Minbin (1534 - 1542 AD). The shrine is an octagonal structure of pure sandstone, with two internal concentric passages. Fifteen small circular pagodas, built of bricks stand on the platforms of south, north and west of the shrine. On the east, there is a prayer hall, which has an entrance each on the east, north, and south sides; a stonewall divides it from the outer court. The east facade of the shrine measures 31 feet from north to south and is only 14 feet high from the ground to the roof. On each side of the entrance are three niches which get into the wall, 6' high, 1' 2" deep, and 2' wide, and these contain stone images of Buddha. Passing through the vaulted passage a gallery opens on either side. Each is 3' 7" wide and 9' high.
The gallery runs in an octagonal shape around the central chamber; each of the outer sides of the passage measures 20' and each contains a row of four niches with a semicircular arch 2' above the ground, and a second row of smaller niches at the height of 7, four to each side, and the niches hold stone images of Buddha. From the inner side of the gallery a vaulted passage leads from north, south, east, and west to the inner chamber, which is also octagonal in shape. At the center stands an eight-cornered stone pillar 40' in circumference. It supports the roof. Neither light nor air can 'penetrate into the shrine except through the front entrance. The roof is about ten feet thick. Over each of the eight corners of the shrine stands a smaller pagoda. At the center, there stands a large pagoda. Andaw Shrine constructed throughout with stone blocks, stands on a small square-shaped hillock. The hillock, including shrine and pagoda, measures 228 feet from east to west and 145 feet from north to south and 42 feet in height from ground to top.
The Ratanabon Pagoda
The pagoda was built by Minkhamaung and his chief queen Shin Htway in BE. 974 (A.D1612). The main edifice is circular at the base, measures 365 in circumference, and is constructed of huge blocks of sandstone; it rises in a number of concentric tiers, of which the upper portion recedes from the one lying beneath it, to a height of about 200 feet. The uppermost portion has fallen down. During the Second World War, a bomb hit the Ratanabon Pagoda, and a half of the main structure was damaged. There are no entrances, niches, arches, nor ornamentation of any kind, not even an image could be found. At a distance of eight feet from the central stupa rises a brick wall 4' high and 2' thick, which encompasses the pagoda in circle; then follows a row of 24 small circular pagodas built of brick. They are now all in ruin. This pagoda resembles a huge bell. The whole structure is enclosed by an octagonal wall 8-10' thick, with an entrance at the south. A lion made of sandstone protects each of the four corners of the outer pagoda walls.
The temple court is in ruin. The building is impressive by its massiveness.. Its architecture pattern resembles an ordinary pagoda, like Sanchi in India. But the bareness of decorative designs and the absence of structural ornamentations characterizes it as peculiarly Rakhine. Traditionally it is believed that the pagoda was built for the purpose of acquiring or securing treasures, both mundane and spiritual. (Ratana means "treasure", "bon" means to gather, to accumulate.)
The Dukkhanthein Pagoda
The temple stands on a hill, 30 feet high, having a flat surface like that of a drum. King Minphalaung built the pagoda in 1571 A.D. Like the Shitthaung and the Andaw shrines, Dukkhanthein was built of hewn sandstones and layers of bricks over the roof. It measures 190 feet from north to south and 200 feet from east to west. It is reached by stone stairways, 8' broad, situated on the east and south. These stairways measuring 106 feet are built of massive stonewalls on the north, east and south. The west one which is slightly convex is connected to an oblong chamber.
The pagoda entrance on the east side, closer to the south-east corner, leads to a long vaulted passage which spirals up in two tiers till it reaches the central chamber. The superstructure, a bell-shaped dome on receding terraces, is similar to the one on Shitthaung, but here a tall square arch is provided on the east side to admit light into the central chamber. The inner chambers and passages of the temple are constructed with well fitting and cemented stones. The pagoda is well-known for the stone sculptures in the vaulted passages, especially the figures of seated ladies, with different styles of coiffure, in the manner of offering lotus buds to the Buddha. Traditionally it is said that there are sixty-four kinds of hairstyle and all the figures are of the wives of noblemen. Besides, on both sides of the entire passage, niches of 1½ feet broad, 1 foot deep, and 2 feet high are dug at regular intervals of 20 feet in the wall and each contains a stone image of the Buddha in sitting posture. There are one hundred and forty-six niches along the passage.
The Laymyetnha Pagoda
About a distance of 150 feet to the northwest of the Dukkhanthein Pagoda is the Laymyetnha Pagoda or "the fourfacaded pagoda". King Minsawmon, the first king of Mrauk-U Dynasty, built it in 1430 A.D. It is one of the five pagodas built at the beginning of the establishment of the city. It is a square structure, with a long protruding portal towards each cardinal point. The interior room is octagonal. In the center of the latter there is an octahedral column intended to support the circular tower erected over the center of the roof. Over each of the four corners of the terrace a smaller circular stupa was built. Each side of the square of the shrine measures 55'; the portals are 13' broad and protrude 17' into the platform. The central tower is circular and has the shape of a dome, with a circumference of 80 feet at the base and is 70 feet high.
The Myatanzaung Pagodas
To the north of Laymyetnha Pagoda at a distance of 500 feet are Myatanzaung Pagodas. There are two pagodas named Eastern Myatanzaung and Western Myatanzaung. These pagodas are situated on a hillock, 40 feet high. The main structures of these pagodas are constructed of blocks of pure sandstone. But turrets, staircases and walls were built of bricks. Minsawmon, the King of Mrauk-U Dynasty, erected these pagodas in 1430 A.D. These two are of the same type, measuring 120 feet in circumference, and 50 feet high.
The Mokseik taw Pagoda
To the north of Myatanzaung and at a distance of 300 feet is the Mokseik taw Pagoda. It stands on a hillock, which rises to 100 feet. King Minsawmon erected the pagoda in 1430 A.D. According to the chronicles, Mokseiktaw is also one of the five-city settlement pagodas in the new city of Mrauk-U. There are two terraces on this hillock. A Pitakataik (Library) is situated on the lower terrace. The library is built of pure sandstone. Most of the monasteries and pagodas of Mrauk-U especially the large teaching monasteries and the pagodas donated by the kings usually had a library attached to them. The height of the main pagoda is 50 feet above ground and 100 feet in circumference at the base. The central pagoda is circular and has a bell shape. A small turret stands on each of the four corners. On the eastern side of the pagoda there is an image of a footprint of the Buddha, 34 inches long, on a large stone. The footprint is plain and the sole of footprint shows neither marks nor any lineaments by which chiromancy could interpret.
The Laungbanpyauk Pagoda
The Laungbanpyauk Pagoda stands at a distance of 500 feet to the Mokseiktaw.Minkhaungraza built the pagoda in 1525 A.D. Two walls surround it. The outer surface of the inner wall is decorated with fine designs and is formed by stones projecting an inch out of the wall; at the center of each is a rosette, containing eight colored clay tablets of red, yellow, blue, and green alternately, with a white center. The diameter of the ornament is 1' 8". An opening in the east and one from the west lead to a platform raised about 6 feet above the level of surrounding ground. The massive stone pagoda at the center is an octagonal pyramid; each side measures at the base 33 feet and rises in ever-receding tiers to a height of about 120 feet (at present only 75 feet remains.). On the first tier, at the middle of each of the eight sides, originally-stood a porch consisting of two square pillars forming the sides of the porch. Each niche contains an image of the Buddha. The outer surface of the appendage displays an exquisite pattern of carving in stone. The design is so fine and outstanding that well-known architects have recorded it in detail.
The Htuparyon Pagoda
According to the local records, King Minranaung, the sixth king of MraukU Dynasty, erected Htuparyon in 1494 A.D. In the year of 1613 A.D the King Minkhamaung and his chief queen, Shin Htway rebuilt this pagoda. The pagoda is built of stone blocks and the base is octagonal. A wall surrounds the spacious temple court, which is in disrepair. Each of the four corners of the pagoda walls is guarded by the figure of a lion having two bodies and a head. The walls are thought to be the walls of a square sima or of the ordination hall for Buddhist monks. At present, the pagoda is in ruin, and neglected. But, in the golden days of Mrauk-U the Htuparyon Pagoda was a well known site for pilgrimage. Most of the kings in Mrauk-U Dynasty came to pay respects to this pagoda soon after their coronations. Traditionally, it was believed by the kings that the site was "The Land of Victory and Prosperity", and was very highly venerated.
The Tharapavata Pagoda
The pagoda stands on this hill. A wall surrounds the pagoda, 134 feet long and 84 feet broad. The pagoda is built of massive stones. It is about 21 feet high, 54 feet broad at each of the four-sides of the base. The first tier contains the sculptures of lions, elephants and deer. The ruins of sima are found on the east side of the pagoda. A small standing Buddha made of stone, 5 feet high, is found on the ruined square Lima. The platform is scattered here and there with the ruins of pagodas, images, damaged pedestals, pillars and many other pieces. A few years ago, a standing image was found unexpectedly on the platform of the pagoda. An inscription in Sanskrit was found on the pedestal of the image. The script was dated, on paleographic grounds, to be between 4th and 8th centuries, A.D.
The Pitakataik
About one hundred yards to the northeast of Htuparyon Pagoda is the Pitakataik or the Library. The King Minphalaung donated it in 1591 A.D. The building had been used as a depository for the Buddhist scriptures and it measures 14 feet from the east to west, and 10 feet from north to south and 9 feet high. It is built entirely of stone. This Pitakataik is also known as Shinkite Pitakataik, (Shinkile means mosquito-bite) and is one of the forty-eight libraries in Mrauk-U capital. The entrance is an arched passage, which opens on the east. According to the Rakhine history, the Buddhist scriptures, the thirty sets of Tipitaka, which Narapati~yi (1638-1645 A.D) had received from Sri Lanka were deposited in this library.
One other interesting thing is the city wall, which is situated at fifty feet to the north of Pitakataik. It is a brick wall about 4 feet high and 2 feet thick. It runs from southeast to northwest across the bottom of the valley between the base of the eastern and western hill ranges. A few feet to the north of this wall is the Panzemraung moat which runs parallel the wall. This site, the wall and the moat, had been used as the last defense during the times 'of wars and at one time was the camping-ground of Rakhine main army.
The Pyisoegyi Pagoda
About 200 yards to the north of Pitakataik is Shinkite-wall. Close to the north stands another city-wall named Tharikonboung. Beyond it is the Panzemraung, a moat that stretches in a bowline from the northwest of the town to the northeast. On the opposite side, it is lined by two ranges of the hills, leaving a flat valley half a mile broad, filled with water throughout the year.
Further east, along the ridge about a few hundred yards away is the Pyisoegyi Pagoda. An old Pitakataik stands near the pagoda. This Pitakataik is similar to the Shinkite Pitakataik. It is also decorated with fine sculptures. A Pyisoegyi donated the pagoda and the pitakataik. The Rakhine royal term Pyisoegyi is equivalent in rank to a prime minister of the present time. A few hundred yards towards the end of the eastern range is Minthamitaga (or) Princess Watergate. The Watergate was made of solid stone. It measures 9 feet high, 30 feet long and 10 feet broad. Close to the south side of Minthami gate was once a swimming pool in which, in former times, the princesses spent the evenings gaily in their gilded royal boats. The pool was also used as a moat. In wartime, if it was necessary, the water gate could be opened quickly and filled the dry moat of the Tharikonboung with water.
The Anoma Pagoda
The Anoma Pagoda stands at a distance of 100, yards to the south of Pitakataik. Princess Anowzaw, daughter of King Salingathu (1494-1501 A.D), built this pagoda in the lovely valley in 1501 A.D. Today, the pagoda is badly ruined. According to the records, the base and the first four tiers are octagonal; the next four are square and the topmost is circular. The circumference of the pagoda at the base measures 160 feet, and it is devoid of any ornamentation. Only a Buddhist image, made of stone, and 9 feet high, remains. It is seated on a pedestal, which is ornamented with numerous sculptures depicting scenes from the Jatakas (mostly animals figures), each scene for each Jataka. A few yards to the southwest of Anoma Pagoda stands the Shwekyathein Pagoda. This pagoda is built of sandstone. On its upper terrace there are some very fine ornamentations consisting of lotus flowers.
The Minpaung Pagoda
The Minpaung Pagoda is situated on a small ridge fifty feet to the south of Anoma Pagoda. It is also called Alaiseti (central pagoda). Minkhamaung and his chief queen Shin Htway built it in 1640 A.D. The pagoda is enclosed in walls decorated with figures of dragons. At present, the pagoda has a height of 40 feet and 290 feet in circumference at the base. A passage leading to the central chamber is vaulted and curved, 7 feet long and 6 feet wide.
The Mahabodhi Shwegu
It is, like the Ratanabdn Pagoda, bell-shaped and octagonal from the base to the top. Each side measures at the base 13½ feet, (106 feet in circumference) and rises in ever-receding tiers to a height of about 30 feet. It is constructed with blocks of sandstone. An arched passage opens towards the east. Along the walls of inner side of the passages are decorated with stone sculptures depicting the 550 Jatakas of Buddha's life. These sculptures are like the mirrors of Rakhine's culture. The chamber contains an image of Buddha made of stone 6 feet high. Numerous stone sculptures (figures) around the pedestal are modeled in pure Rahkhine style.
The Ratanasanraway Pagoda
This pagoda is situated on the second range of Nattaung Hill. A few yards to the south of Mahabodhi Shwegu is the wall of the precinct of Ratanasanraway Pagoda. The pagoda was donated and built by King Basawphyu, the third -king of Mrauk-U Dynasty, in .1459 A.D. The wall measures 112 feet long, 88 feet broad and have a staircase and an entrance in the west. The pagoda is now in ruin. The upper portion of the main pagoda is circular, measuring 130 feet in circum-ference and 28 feet in height today. There is an entrance, an arched passage, on the east side of the pagoda. The chamber contains a seated Buddha image, 7 feet high. The pedestal is an octagonal structure of sandstone and was built of eight stages. Each stage is ornamented with numerous designs.
The Ratanamhankin Pagoda
The Ratanamhankin Pagoda stands on the third range of the same hill, Nattaung, about one hundred yards away to the south of the Ratanasanraway. The King Basawphyu in 1468 A.D, a year also erected the Ratanamhankin after the donation and erection of the Ratanasanraway. The pagoda is walled on three sides, north, south and west, with pure stones. The wall measures 150 feet long and 75 feet wide. Each side, except the eastern side, has a staircase. The pagoda was built entirely of sandstone. The dome was ruined. Today only 20 feet of it remains standing and it has a base of 80 feet-in circumferences. To enter the chamber there is a cave passage on the eastern side. The cave is decorated with very fine sculptures, such as birds, ogre, lotus and griffin. But most of the sculptures are now broken and the platform is covered here and there with the ruins of broken images, sculptures, damaged pedestals, pillars, etc. In the middle of all these ruins, in the central sector there lies a large image of seated Buddha in stone, 9 feet high.
The Ratanathinkha Pagoda
The Ratanathinkha Pagoda is situated on top of a small hillock named Galontaung (Galon-bird Mountain) at a distance of one hundred yards to the south of the Ratanamhankin. Hence, the pagoda is also called Galontaung Pagoda. Prince Mingyinyo erected the pagoda together with a stone pillar in 1581 A.D. He was a grandson of King Minbin, one of the most powerful kings in the Mrauk-U Dynasty. According to the inscription on the stone pillar of this pagoda, Mingyinyo's father was King Mintikha who reigned in Rakhine residing in the Mrauk-U Palace, from 1553 to 1555 A.D. The pagoda was constructed with sandstone. Eight turrets and small pagodas in bricks surround the central pagoda.
The Ratanamanaung Pagoda
The King Candathudhammaraza donated the pagoda in 1652 A.D. It is a solid stone structure, octagonal from the base to the top, and measures 344 feet in circumference at the base and 180 feet high. There are no niches, porches, opening, nor decorative designs on the main body of the structure. In the northwest corner of the enclosure is a lima, 54 feet long, 13 feet broad, and 10 feet high. The roof is vaulted and made of stone, but partly in ruins. There are a few other small shrines on the platform, but they are completely ruined. A few distances to the south of Ratanamanaung, facing the Ahiwankan moat, is the Zonedat Hill .The hill is about 150 feet high. It was so important a closed fortress for the palace that the king had appointed a chief commander to guard it.
The Mingalamanaung Pagoda
King Narapatigyi erected the pagoda in the years between 1638 and 1645 A.D. Other sources ascribe the pagoda as being built by the King Oakkabala in 1685 A.D before he died. The pagoda is an octagonal solid stone spire, without porches, niches, or ornamental works. The pagoda is very similar in shape to the Tezarama Pagoda. The ground of the pagoda is scattered with ruins of pagodas. On the south side of the stupa are four stone slabs one side of which is covered with Rakhine inscriptions. One of them is completely damaged; scripts on the other three are legible. According to the inscriptions, King Candavizaya, the 34th king of Mrauk-U Dynasty, set these up in the years between 1720 and 1722 A.D. In the inscription, the King described himself as" the great-great-grandson of Narapatigyi who erected the Mingalamanaung Pagoda."
The Nan-Oo Image
The Nan-Oo image stands at a distance of 100 yards to the southeast of the Mingalamanaung Pagoda. It is 7 feet a'hd 7 inches high and is a stone image. There are numerous stone sculptures around the pedestal. The image was donated by Natshinmai the chief queen of Thirithudhammaraza (1622-1638 A.D). The platform is scattered with ruined sculptures. Some of the broken sculptures are collected at the north of the entrance. About 150 yards to the southwest of the Nan-Oo image is an interesting city walling which is said to be an ancient type of security arrangement. It stretches about one thousand feet in length from east to west. The wall was built with blocks of sandstone and was connected to two small ranges. The wall also served as a protective barrier for the area between the two small ranges and was provided with artillery. This guarded the city against possible attacks from the northern side. An old stone-tower and a stone-gate are still in good condition in this walling.
The Sakyamanaung Pagoda
The Sakyamanaung is situated a half mile northeast of the palace-site, some distance away to the south of the Ratanamanaung Pagoda. The King Thirithudhammaraza who reigned in Mrauk-tJ in the years between 1622 and 1638 A.D built the pagoda in 1629 A.D.
The plan of the base of the pagoda is peculiar. The base consists of eight braces joined to form an irregular octagon, and the braces forming the side on the four cardinal points are wider than the intermediate ones. From the first tier upward the structure is octagonal; the sides over the four main braces form a straight line, and those over the intermediate braces assume a zigzag design. After the ninth tier the shape of the spire becomes circular and continues to be so up to the top.On each side of the second and third tier stands a niche, (or rather a porch) containing a sitting image of Buddha. The facade of the porch contains ornamental designs similar to those found at the Laungbanpyauk Pagoda.The pagoda is still in a fairly good state of preservation. It is 114 feet high. The enclosing stonewall is of simple construction and it has an opening in the east and west side. Two huge giants in kneeling posture guard the western gate. Twelve turrets were built in the platform, which surrounded the pagoda.
The Wuntinattaung
This is the oldest historical site in Mrauk-U. It is situated on a hill to the south of the Sakyamanaung Pagoda, at a distance of 400 yards to the east of the palace site. There are sculptures, which are all ruined. The platform is strewn with damaged stones, which at one time formed the parts of an ancient Nat shrine. According to the local records the shrine is related to the King Paiphyu, the son of Candadevi, who was chief queen in the era of Vesali (4th to 8th century A.D). He had built a palace on Gyettharetaung in Mrauk-U in 776 A.D. A few stone images and two inscriptions were found on the Palace ground and these are exhibited in the Mrauk-U Museum. An inscription which was partly defaced and a record were found there. The script describes the repairing of the shrine. According to the script, the King Minraza repaired the shrine in the year Sakkaraj 883 M.E. (1521 A.D). This inscription is one of the stone-scripts written in old Rakhine language. Another inscription is more interesting. It was found on Wuntinattaung Hill. The script and the general character of the inscription are remarkable in that it resembles the Pall inscriptions found at Sriksetra and which belonged to the 6th or 7th century A.D.
The Wuntinattaung inscription, therefore, serves as an important cultural link between Sriksetra and northern Rakhine, Mrauk-U. Then, there are some stone images; they are almost entirely damaged and most are defaced. One image shows Buddha sitting cross-legged, with the right hand on the right knee, the left resting on the lap, wearing long earings. Behind the head is a circular nimbus, backed by rings of aureole. This pattern stretches to the side of the body, in the manner of some Mahamuni sculptures of the 5th century A.D. Thus, it is considered quite possible that the Wuntinattaung in Mrauk-U had flourished in the eras between the 5th and the 9th century A.D like-other ancient Rakhine cities such as Vesali and Dhanyawaddy.
The Neikbuzar Pagodas
There are three pagodas on the hill. The southern pagoda is called the Auk-Neikbuzar (lowerNeikbuzar). It is bell-shaped. The prayer court contains a seated image of Buddha, 10 feet high. Two other images of nats belonging to the Vesali period, 4th to 8th century A.D, were situated in this court. It is possible that the Wuntinattaung and the Neikbuzar were simultaneously influenced by Vesali civilization. Climbing towards the range one can reach another pagoda called Ahlai Neikbuza (middle Neikbuzar Pagoda), which is in ruins.
The one called PanmaNeikbuza (main Neikbuzar Pagoda) is situated on the top of the same hill. The King Min Saw Oo built all Neikbuza Pagodas in 1527 A.D. A few steps to east of the main Neikbuzar Pagoda lies another group of the pagodas called Paranyinaung (brother pagodas) there are altogether eight pagodas, which are of different types. Close to the east of these pagodas is Miparagyigu (cave of chief queen), on top of a small hillock. In the main chamber of this cave, there is a sitting stone image of Buddha, about 10 feet high. The Queen Sawthandar, a chief queen of the King Mintaikkha, donated the image in 1553 A.D.
The Paraoke Pagoda
About half a mile to the east of palacesite, 200 yards to the southeast of the lower Neikbuzar Pagoda, is the Paraoke Pagoda. It stands on a small hillock about 50 feet high. The Paraoke Pagoda was erected by the King Minphalaung in 1571 A.D. The King was troubled by a disturbance in the whole of the country after he had built the Dukkhanthein Pagoda. Thus, on the advice of his seers and astrologers he donated this pagoda in order to prevent the disintegration of the union. He named this pagoda, "Paraoke", (Oke means to hold or control the whole country.). The uppermost portion of the pagoda has fallen down now. There remains only the lowest tire. The main pagoda is circular at the base, and is constructed of stone. Around the outer side, there are twenty nine niches each holding a4 sitting image of Buddha. The entrance, an arched passage, opens towards the east and connects the chamber which contains a seated stone image of Buddha, 12 feet and 5 inches high on a lotus throne.
The Minkhaungshwetu Pagoda
Close to the southern base of the Paraoak Pagoda Hill about two hundred yards away is the Minkhaungshwetu Pagoda. The pagoda is decorated with various fine sculptures. The erection of this pagoda is ascribed to Natshinmae, a chief queen ofKing Thirithudhammaraza, in 1629 A.D.
The Pisei Pagoda
Half a mile to the northeast of Minkaungshwetu is the four-sided Pisei Pagoda. It is situated on a small hillock of about 150 feet high. The pagoda has four porches in the west, east, north and the south sides. Each porch contains an image of Buddha made of sandstone, Mrauk-U style. The entrance of each side leads to an inner vaulted passage. In the center stands a stone pillar, which supports the roof and an image of Buddha above it. The style of the image belongs to the early Laymro period. Traditionally the shrine is said to have been built in 1123 A.D by the King Kawliya , a king of Parein Dynasty. The pagoda contains a relic of Buddha. The pagoda was repaired by the kings of Mrauk-U Dynasty. The pagoda was constructed entirely of stones and has been greatly revered by Buddhists.
The Koethaung Pagoda
To the north of the Pisei Hill at a distance of 400 yards is the Koethaung Pagoda. The pagoda stands on a plain and is surrounded by paddy fields. The upper tiers of the pagoda had disappeared. The remaining lowest tier is about 30 feet high including earth foundation. The King Mintaikkha who was the son of the King Minbin, the donor of the great Shitthaung Pagoda, built the Koethaung Pagoda in 1553 A.D. The word Koethaung means ninety thousand and thus the temple is supposed to contain ninety thousand Buddhas.
The pagoda is the biggest in size among the pagodas in Mrauk-U. It measures 230 feet from east to west and 250 feet from north to south. The Koethaung Pagoda is very similar to Shitthaung Pagoda, which his father had donated. They are of the same type from the historical and archaeological viewpoints. This tradition of donation of religious buildings by royal families came down from the royal ancestors. The pagoda was constructed of massive stonewalls and terraces. The small one hundred and eight pagodas, all made of sandstone, were built on the terraces. The entrance to the pagoda on the east side leads to a long vaulted passage which spirals round the tiers until it reaches the central chamber. The construction of the Koethaung Pagoda resembles a rock cave tunnel". The main tower above the pagoda is octagonal in shape. It is believed that there may be treasures of sculptures, artworks and even valuable jewelleries buried underneath the ruins. The platform is scattered here and there with vestiges of pagodas, images and many other such paraphernalia.
The legend says that the pagoda was demolished and hit by a thunderbolt because the King Mintaikkha built the Koethaung Pagoda (ninety thousand images), which exceeded in number to the images of his father (King Minbin's) Shitthaung Pagoda (eighty thousand images). It was unlikely. Really, the Pagoda, Koethaung was built in six months time by the advice of his astrologers. In building this pagoda, the workmen used both bricks and stones. Other pagodas were mostly built of pure sandstone, which had been carried, from the Rakhine-coasts. The six-month's time was not long enough to collect the required number of blocks of stone. As a consequence, Koethaung was inferior in quality in materials as well as in workmanship compared to Shitthaung Pagoda.
The Udawsaykan
Four hundred yards to the northeast of the Koethaung Pagoda is Udawsaykan (royal head-washing tank). It is a large tank, 200 yards from north to south, 100 yards from east to west. Traditionally, the kings of Mrauk-U Dynasty celebrated their head-washing ceremony.
Kyaunglaidon Fortress
About two miles to the east, and northeast of palace-site, a half-mile to the east of the Mrauk Myinmoenan, is a fortress named Kyaunglaidon. It was built of stone on the eastern slope of the tiger-ridge. The tiger-ridge was used as one of the outer city walling and is situated on the east of the Mrauk-U City. The ridge runs from north to south. The tiger-ridge runs parallel to the Lemro River and its valley. Thus, the Kyaunglaidon is a very important fortress for the city.
The Theingyishwegu
The Theingyishwegu is a well-known cave of the great nine-cave-temple in Mrauk-U. It is situated in a small hillock, 30 feet high, about one mile away to the southeast of the palace. At that site the King Minbin erected " the Theingyishwegu sima (ordination hall) in 1532 A.D. The whole hillock was made a sima', and huge stone pillars were erected around it to mark the boundary of the sima. It is considered the most attractive sima in Mrauk-U. At present, the huge, sima'pillars and other vestiges remain standing, indicating that the site had once been a land of religious sanctuary. The upper portion of the cave is damaged; only 12 feet high stone image of Buddha remains.
The Nyimadaw Pagoda
A few yards south of the Theingyishwegu up a small hill stands the Nyimadaw Pagoda. It was built by a princess Sawthuba (apmokb), a daughter of the King" Sinpyushin (qifjzL&Sif) (14821492 A.D). The sculptures around the throne are decorated with very attractive designs. Among them a familiar design is a man playing a harp. The donor, the Princess Sawthuba was the younger sister of Sawnanminpyu. The pagoda, donated by Sawthuba, was therefore, Sawthubapara or the Nyimadaw Pagoda.
The Shwetaung Pagoda
The Shwetaung Pagoda (Golden Hill Pagoda) stands on top of a small hill, 250 feet high. The hill is the highest one in the Mruak-U area. It can be seen even from a distance of 20 miles if viewed from out of the Kaladan River. The pagoda stands a half-mile away to the southeast east of the palace-site. The building of the Shwetaung Pagoda was ascribed to King Minbin. It was built between the years 1531 A.D and 1553 A.D. Later donors including kings and present inhabitants repaired it. During the first Anglo-Myanmar War, the Myanmar had built some earthen-fortifications, mounted guns on them and inflicted some losses upon the British forces. A few portions of these earthworks can be seen there still standing.
The Wathaie Image
At the same distance about five hundred yards to the south of the palace site, to the north of the Letsekan Lake is the great image, Wathaie Para. It was made of a large single stone and is the largest image in Mrauk-U. It measures 13 feet in height, excluding the throne and 8 feet from knee to knee. The whole of the body was gilded by the donations of the villagers. The King Tazarta erected this image in 1515 A.D. In 1531 A.D Minbin became the King of Mrauk-U. Before the King set out on a military operation to Bengal, because of the prophecy, he had taken good care of this image. The shrine, which shelters the image, was constructed entirely of stone and was mounted by a new hti. Today, the shrine is in ruin. The image is fairly well preserved by the donors.
The Pankonthein
A huge seated Buddha image, 11 feet high faces the entrance. There is a two-line inscription on the front of the seat of the image. This script is the oldest one found in Mrauk-U. The script is extremely important for the dating of the image and it belonged to the Laymyo period, which extended to the period from 10th to 14th century A.D. At one time the image was situated on the top of the Sandantaung hillock and carried over to the present site from the old city of Launggret by Minhlaraza. It was originally called "Sutawpan Image".
The Jinamanaung Pagoda
This pagoda stands on a low steep hillock named Panhteintaung , half a mile to the south of the palace, was donated by the King Candathudhammaraza in 1658 A.D. He was the 22nd king of the MraukU Dynasty and reigned for twenty-two years from 1652 to 1674 A.D. He was one of the longest reigning kings in the Mrauk-U Dynasty. The name means,"the Buddha who overcame the devil." The pagoda is a solid stone structure, octagonal from base to top, and measures 320 feet around the base and 120 feet in height. In the east is a porch, which leads to a chamber occupying the center of the pagoda. There is seated a bronze image of Buddha in the chamber. Someone took the image made of bronze, away during the first Anglo-Myanmar War. There is another seated image in the chamber. The ceiling is vaulted. The facade of the porch exhibits some -good carving in stone. A double bodied, single-headed lion guards each of the eight corners of the pagoda.
The Shwekyathein
To the west of the palace-site are also numerous pagodas, most of them in ruin; the terrain is intersected by many small creeks. An old monastery named Lakkaukzi Kyaung is situated 400 yards away to the west of the palace-site. There are some ancient images and historical documents in this monastery. To the west of this monastery is a stone gate named Mauktawtaga ,still in good condition. It measures 15 feet high, 9 feet broad and 15 feet long. Nearby, to the west of the gate was an old palace-site. It was situated on a platform, 4 feet high. The palace was built by the King Minsawmon (1430-32 A.D) in honour of a queen, named Mauktaw. About 40 years later, a daughter was born to the King Basawphyu (1459-1482 A.D) on this palace - site and she was named Princess Sawshwekya. The princess donated in 1471 AD a pagoda containing images and a sima. The sima deserves mention for its stone carvings on the facade of the pagoda. It is a small square structure of stone, measuring 18 feet from east to west and 15 feet from north to south. As the roof had fallen down, only 16 feet of the wall remains today. To the east there protrudes a porch, 15 feet long, 14 feet high, with an arched passage (14' long, 4'2" wide, and 10' high), which leads to an image room, 13' by 10' 8". On the west side of the chamber is a large stone image of the Buddha, 8 feet and 8 inches, sitting cross-legged on a roughly hewn stone altar. The facade of the porch is cut into ornamental designs; a pillar, so rare in Rakhine, was found here.
The Lokamanaung Pagoda
This pagoda was also built by Candathudhammaraza (16521674 A.D) in 1658 A.D. It stands on a flat ground. The shrine was constructed with stone blocks, well hewn and cemented. It is square at the base, each side measuring 74 feet; the first four tiers are also square; in the center of each side of the tiers stands a porch containing an image of the Buddha. The sides of the porch are made of stone slabs; the architectural design is similar to that of the Laungbanpyauk Pagoda. There are traces of ornamental designs on the face of the porches. A guinea pig guards each corner of the lowest tier.
On each corner of the first four tiers stands a small circular pagoda, solid and without niches. From the garbha upward the central spire is circular; the apex is crowned with an iron hti (umbrella) once gilded and still in good order. The east facade of the pagoda has a portal 20' high, protruding 2' from the main wall, a vaulted passage 4' 8" wide, 16' high, and 29' long leads to a chamber in the center of the pagoda. It contains a stone image of the Buddha 12 feet high, sitting cross-legged on a stone alter. The ceiling is a hemispherical dome and the apex is 16 feet above ground. The pagoda has a wall measuring 300 feet around the base and 100 feet high.The old roads to Vesali and Mahamuni begin here. These roads are still known as the gold road and the silver road.
The Parabaw Pagoda
Across the Parabaw creek, there is a large and very interesting pagoda named Parabaw. It stands on the bank of a small tidal creek. The King Minrazagyi, the most powerful king of Mrauk-U Dynasty, built the pagoda in 1603 A.D for the occasion of the birth of his new daughter, who was born at the same time in the same year. The princess was named Panthanda (coral flower) and she was declared the donor of this Parabaw Pagoda. It was constructed with bricks; the base is square; the walls stand perpendicular to a height of 20 feet. There are four tiers one above the other. A circular dome-shaped garba and then a succession of twelve concentric bell shaped rings gradually taper off until they reach to a point. At the north, east and south sides, there are protruding portals and there is also a passage with a pointed arch, which leads to a central room. There is a throne built in the west wall of the chamber and on it is seated a large stone image of the Buddha, 12 feet and 3 inches high. This image of the Buddha is very similar in type to the Mahamuni.
The Palace Site
Before visiting any other place in Mrauk U priority should be given to the ruins of the inner palace city where the Royal palace once stood magnificently. The place is surrounded by three wall encirclements. When Mong Saw Mon started buildings the palace, underground canals were first dug, then stone walls were erected and finally the three hills were leveled down. Some of the canals that carried off the water to the Thinghanadi creek to the south of the palace can still be found. The area of the whole palace was 1.2 square miles and the walls were originally made of brick. King Mong Ba Gree reinforced the palace walls with a new structure of stone in 1531. The high of the walls to day averages 12ft and thickness runs about 7ft. Three sites of the palace are guarded with moats.
Laksaykan Lake
Lying side by side with Anuma Lakey south-west of Zina Banaung Pagada is the Laksaykan Lake. This scenic lake is about 100 acres wide and its embankment connecting the two hill ranges has two 12ft high gates. The western gate, know as Laksaykan gate is 24ft long, 17ft high and 8ft wide. In case of an enemy raid from the south of the palace, this gate was to be used flood the lower plains in the north to defer the enemy.The artificial, man-made lakes named Anomakan and Letsekan on the southern part of Mrauk-U were once part of the defence system. They are now peaceful havens for visitors as well as for the local people, and for animals, birds and fish. Letsekan is (3) miles in length and half a mile wide. Some of the old city walls can also be seen.
BAUNG DWET VILLAGE, about 5 km south of Mrauk-U and explore the ruined DUTCH TRADE CENTRE. The old jetty was at Baung Dwet where once the ships harboured and trading centres both of local and international origin flourished at this area. The jetty was always lively with foreign merchants.
MAHAMUNI SHRINE : (DYANNYAWADI-Kyauktaw)
According to Rakhine chronicles, Lord Buddha in his life time visited the city of Dhannyawadi (Grain Blessed) in 554 B.C. The Rakhine king Sandar Suriya (Candrasuriya-Sun Moon) requested Lord Buddha to leave the image of Himself. This Buddhist shrine is one of the most revered sites in the whole country as the Maha Muni Buddha Image is believed to have been cast in bronze and five kinds of precious metals by Sakka or Indra the Lord of the Celestial Realm.After casting the Great Image Maha Muni (Great Sage) Lord Buddha breathed upon it which resembled the exact likness of the Blessed One. Maha Muni was worshipped by Rakhine kings for centuries and regarded as a protector of the country. In 1784 A.D , Rakhineland was conquered by king Bodaw Paya and the Great Image was carried across the Rakhine Yoma to Amarapura (now Mandalay).
In the main shrine on the topmost level are three very old stone images of Buddha. The central image four feet, two inches high is known as Maha Muni's brother. The shrine is a peaceful, quiet place about 10 km east of Kyauktaw town and about 40 km north of Mrauk U. It is on a small hillock called Sirigutta surrounded by three low walls on three successive terraces, the main shrine built on the highest platform. On the lowest platform is an old library built by king Minkhari in AD 1439; it is a rare example of a library from this early period Also a large tank dug by king Sandasuriya can be seen in the vicinity. In the year 1900, a rich man from Akyab (Sittwe), U Rai Kyaw Thu cast an image and installed it at the former place of the Great Image. Up to this day, Maha Muni site has become the most venerated site in Myanmar and the former glory has again been restored due to the new highway linking Yangon and Sittwe. Mahamuni Site now can be reached by car either from Sittwe or Mrauk U. Throughout the year, pilgrams flocked to visit from all parts of Rakhine State as well as devotees from different parts of Myanmar. There is a small museum near the shrine which displays some oldest stone sculptures in Myanmar. The Maharmuni festival falls in the month of Tabaung (March).
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Mrauk U is an ornament of the Rakhine culture. Its name suggests the fulfillment of endeavours. Between 1430 AD and 1784 AD it was the last captial of the powerful Rakhine kings where Rakhine culture had its full bloom. Before Mrauk U, several other former royal cities, Dhanyawaddy, Vesali, Sambwet, Pyinsa, Parein, Launggret, Khrit and Nayyinzaya- taungngu had flourished from generation to generation for many years. Geographically, Mrauk U lies at the head of a tributary, Kaladan(Gissapanadi) River; about 45 miles from the west coast, but the largest sea-going ships of that period could reach it through a network of deep creeks by which it was surrounded.The position of Mrauk U in the Bay of Bengal, with both land and sea routes to the east and west, resulted in the development of its commercial and cultural center which later emerged as a highly flourishing country because of its strategic location between India and South East Asia.
The golden days of Mrauk U city, those of 16th and 17th centuries, were contemporary to the days of Tudor kings, the Moghuls, the Ayuthiya kings and Ava (Inwa), Taungoo and Hanthawaddy kings of Myanmar. Mrauk U was cosmopolitan city, fortified by a 30-kilometer long fortification and an intricate net of moats and canals. At the centre of the city was the Royal Place, looming high over the surrounding area like an Asian Acropolis. Waterways formed by canals and creeks earned the fame of distinct resemblance to Venice. Mrauk U offers some of the richest archaeological sites in South-East Asia. While Bagan is considered as the city of pagodas. It is yet another site in Myanmar with old temples and pagodas, but built in styles different from those of Bagan.The last stronghold of Mrauk U kings could be truely considered as the fortress city in Myanmar. " In durability, architectural skill and ornamentation, Mrauk U temples far surpass those on the banks of Irrawaddy " remarked Dr.Forchhammer, a renowned archeologist, in his book entitled "Arakan". Mrauk U is a historical site where visitors can also witness edifices, sculptures, moats, citywalls, fortresses, reservoirs, city gates etc., still standing in various parts of the city as a mute evidence to the glory of an erstwhile Rakhine Kingdom. Mrauk U, a fine last royal capital of Rakhine has scenic beauty and historical remains, which are inextricable and remarkable. Innumerable pagodas belonging to all ages can be found throughout the city. Everywhere one looks within Mrauk U city wall on every mound, every field and every hill are Buddha images, temples, Sima and pagodas.The city offers the visitor many chances to study the cultural and traditional heritage handed down to the present day Rakhine generation by their forefathers. Mrauk U can rightfully be claimed as the "Open-air Museum" of the arts and culture of the people of Rakhine.Once, more than six million shrines and pagodas flourished and there is rarely a hilltop that does not adorn itself with one pagoda or another.
After the annexation of Arakan (Rakhine) by the British, the capital was shifted to Sittwe (Akyab): since that time Mrauk-U was known by the people as Mrohaung (Old City). The name Mrohaung was given by the British when they shifted their seat of administration to Sittwe in 1826. The original name was restored in 1979. The city is just 40 miles away by river from Sittwe and the trip takes 3 to 4 hours. There are daily flights to Sittwe from Yangon which take 2 hours via Thandwe and 1 hour directly. The boat departs from a jetty in the Sattroegya, a tributary creek of the Kaladan(Gissapanadi) river and on the way there are many places of interest to be seen along the river.The gateway to Mrauk-U is Thantara village from where the undulating hills of the city with white temples and pagodas on their tops appear within sight. The Thinghanadi creek is the city's life-blood and the boat journey ends at Aungdatt wharf.
The stone pagodas were built three and four centuries ago and many have been totally neglected for the last 150 years: the sides of the stone blocks fit compactly and are joined with cement thus resisting the absorption of ficus which are capable of reducing a brick pagoda into a shapeless heap of bricks in a few years.The pagodas and temples built or renovated during the Myanmar governor’s rule (after the fall of Mrauk-U 1785-1825) followed the tradition of the Kunhaung architecture, with smaller pagodas built at the corners of the lower basement of a pagoda; bricks were usually used in making the receding arches. U Mra Wa and Shwegu Daung pagodas are the two examples that still survive. Gold and silver coins serve as the priceless heritage of the Mrauk-U period. The tradition of coin-making was handed down from the Vesali kings who started minting coins around the fifth century. The coins so far found are of one denomination only. Inscribed on the coins are the title of the ruling king and his year of coronation; coins before 1638 had Rakhine inscriptions on one side and Persian and Nagari inscriptions on the other. The inclusion of the foreign inscriptions was meant for the easy acceptance by the neighbouring countries and the Arab traders. Twenty-three types of silver coins and three types of gold coins have so far been found. All the kings who ascended the throne issued coins. City walls, gates, settlements, monastery sites, fortresses, garrisons and moats are the other priceless heritages left to the safe keeping of today's Rakhine people. Stone rubbles of proud mansions of that period are also priceless reminders of Rakhine glory.
It is no wonder that Mrauk U is properly known as the "Land of Pagodas" and Europeans remarked Mrauk U as "The Golden City". The Rakhine of those days were proud of Mrauk U. They were entirely satisfied to be the inhabitants of Mrauk U. The history shows what happened in the city in early times.
The Shitthaung Pagoda
About half a mile north of the palace site is the Shitthaung Pagoda or the Shrine of 80,000 images. It stands on a promontory half way up to the west side of a hillock named Phokhaung Taung. The donor of the Shitthaung was Minbargyi, the most powerful king of the MraukU Dynasty. According to the stone script inscription he was also called as Minbin and reigned Rakhine from 1531 to 1553 A.D. The King built this remarkable Pagoda in 1535 A.D after the successful defense against the Portuguese attack on the City of Mrauk-U.
One thousand architects and workmen had built the pagoda for a year. The skill and art displayed in its construction and ornamentation are remarkable. 'Besides, we may observe here about the maze-like layout of this pagoda. In the accounts of this curious plan, some foreigners remarked that the Shitthaung Pagoda was built alike a fortress. The real purpose of the pagoda was for prayer, some rituals of initiation, and some of the King's ceremonies, which were usually held secretly.
It was constructed six feet thick of solid sandstone and like "rock cave tunnel". No mortar was used in the construction and stones were connected with stone brackets. The first platform appears to contain two small pagodas all built of sandstone. They were said by tradition to have been built by the donor of the Shitthaung Pagoda, King Minbin. They were called Nay Htwet Para (Sun Arise Pagoda) and Nay Win Para (Sun Set Pagoda). Nay-Htwet Para is octagonal; the sides are concave and the entrance faces the east. Another small pagoda is Nay Win Para, a stupa shape with a circular base. The King Minbin built these pagodas to show his dominion and autocracy.
The inner temple court east of the main shrine is occupied by a wooden prayer-hall which houses innumerable Buddha images. Before entering the main hall is a stone pillar with inscriptions in Rakhine characters. According to the inscription, the pillar was engraved by order of King Minrazargyi in 1593 A.D. In the upper pillar there is a sculpture of the King and his four ministers. Close to the inscribed pillar lies an image of King Minbin, the donor of this Shitthaung Pagoda. Opposite the entrance is a main image of Buddha, seated on a throne with /bumiphasa mudra/. The image is 9 feet in height. The central pagoda measures 160 feet long, 124 feet broad, and 86 feet high. On the north and south walls stand at regular intervals circular, turret-like pagodas. There are one bigger and fourteen smaller ones on the north and a bigger one and seventeen smaller ones on the south and were built of brick; between each turret a stone slab is erected into the wall. Both sides of the slab contain sculptures in bold relief; the side facing the inner temple usually represents an image of Buddha, the outer side an ogre, naga or mythical birds or beasts. One depicts a cobra with spreading hood holding a lotus flower in its mouth. The shrine itself has a gallery all-round the structure and a dark passage, which leads to the inner chambers. The outer wall contains at regular intervals arched passages; each holds two sitting life-size images of Buddha; they are placed back to back. The inner wall consists of well-hewn blocks of stone cut over its whole length (312') into six tiers of figures. The corner was placed with large four central figures, such as King Brahmans of SE corner, Thagra-min surrounded by his four queens of NE corner, Satu- Lokapala of NW corner, the donor, King Minbin surrounded by ministers and queens of SW corner. The lowest belt of the pagoda represents men in native (Rakhine) costume, manner and tradition, in the manners of wrestling, boxing, dancing, playing, and general merry-making. The first, second, third, fourth, and fifth belts depict the 550 earlier lives of Buddha. There are over a thousand sculptures.
The topmost girdle shows human figures, male and female in praying attitude. From these inscribed sculptures one can learn something about old Rakhine musical instruments and traditional dances. Along the gallery, each corner and each side was provided with both female and male figures of Vasundhra. Therefore, Shitthaung was also regarded as a sima (ordination hall). Along the other two inner galleries are deposited hundreds of Buddha images of varying sizes. A sculpted Buddha's foot-print is placed in the last passage. It is plain; there are no figure-prints on the sole of an upturned foot.
An Evidence of Early Buddhism in the Shitthaung Pagoda.
The Shitthaung Pillar : The pillar is very well known and is situated at the entrance of the Shitthaung Pagoda. It is said to have been brought from Vesali to Mrauk-U, and placed at this site by King Minbin, in 1535 A.D who reigned over Rakhine from 1513 to 1553 A.D. It had fallen during the bombardment in the Second World War and has been re-erected in a cage near the same entrance. The pillar is square, rising to a height of 10 feet; each side is 2' 4" broad. Three sides are covered with inscriptions in Sanskrit; the inscription on the north side is also badly damaged; the western face inscription is best preserved. The south side has not been inscribed. Dr. Johnston was the first to read the western face inscription fully. It was dated on paleographic grounds as the beginning of the 8th century A.D. His readings reveal a list of kings who ruled in ancient Rakhine. Although the eastern side of pillar is now completely illegible it can be dated between 3rd century and 6th century A.D. It is considered to be the inscription of early Rakhine kingdoms, mostly Dhanyawaddy.
Stone pillar of the Shithaung Pagoda. There is an octagonal red sandstone column, 8' 10" high above the ground. The circumference around the base measures 72" (9" to each side); towards the apex there is a band decoration consisting of an enclosed row of dots and a double lotus petal motif, with a major petal at each of the eight corners.
Stone slab. Close to the pillar lies a large stone slab, 12' long, 4' 2" broad and 10-12" thick. At the lower end, depicted in relief, is a wavy line suggestive of water, from which rises a right-vaulted winged conch shell with a lotus growing from the aperture, the tip of the petals touching the outer edge of an ornately carved wheel symbolizing dhammacakka , (the Wheel of the Law) its outer rim enclosing a circle of dots, and the inner rim comprising a double lotus petal motif.The design appears to be emblematic of Brahmanism (the conch), which produced Buddhism (the lotus flower), the dhammacakka. On the other hand, the design suggests the fertility and prosperity (lotus), which arises from the waters (wave and conch) when the Cakravartin , Monarch (wheel) holds sway. The motif constantly appears in -ancient Rakhine's art. At the upper end of the wheel is a square hole sunk into the stone, 5" deep, 2' 4" long, and 2' 8" broad; next follows a circular, cup-like hole, 4" deep and 6" across the opening; the reverse of the stone is only a rough-hewn surface. As the sides of the inscribed pillar also measure 2'4", Dr.Forchhammer suggested that the stone slab, which must have been from 18-20' long, but is broken off above the cup-like hollow, was originally a lintel or architrave, the square hole capped the inscribed pillar forming the left-hand post of the entrance gate; the circular hollow received the revolving axis of a swinging door; that portion of the lintel which exhibits the dhammacakka, the lotus and conch, protruded over the north-side of the inscribed pillar to counterbalance the weight of the opposite part of the slab (now broken) which formed the actual lintel over the entrance, the octagonal pillar constituted the right-hand post of the entrance. The construction of the gate forcibly calls to mind the "turning of the Wheel of the Law", the essential function of the Buddhist Cakravartin King, to whom was given the power to regulate the celestial and terrestrial forces in order to control the coming of the rains which would ensure the continuing prosperity of the Kingdom. Hence, the Cakra of the lintel was depicted as merging into pillar, on which, as we shall see, the continuity of the dhamma of the Rakhine Cakravartin Kings was recorded. The form of the pillar on the opposite side is also not without significance. In common with other pillars associated with Cakravartin Kingship, it is eight-sided, symbolizing the eight directions of the macrocosmic country and the macrocosmic universe (see. "Asokan" pillars). The decoration around the upper portion is identical with that of the dakkra on the lintel, the lotus petal in each corner suggesting that the effect of the royal dhamma was to be felt in each of the eight corners. Its significance was still remembered in the 16th century, when King Minbin had it erected and built at his remarkable royal shrine, the Shitthaung Pagoda. But all were ruined during the Second World War.
The Andaw Shrine
The Andaw Shrine, in which is enshrined a tooth-relic of Buddha, stands at a distance of 86 feet to the northeast of the Shitthaung Pagoda. Min Hla Raza originally built this shrine in 1521 A.D. The King of Mrauk-U, Minrazagyi, rebuilt it in 1596 A.D. The central tower of the shrine contains the tooth-relic of Buddha, which is said to have been obtained from Sri Lanka by King Minbin (1534 - 1542 AD). The shrine is an octagonal structure of pure sandstone, with two internal concentric passages. Fifteen small circular pagodas, built of bricks stand on the platforms of south, north and west of the shrine. On the east, there is a prayer hall, which has an entrance each on the east, north, and south sides; a stonewall divides it from the outer court. The east facade of the shrine measures 31 feet from north to south and is only 14 feet high from the ground to the roof. On each side of the entrance are three niches which get into the wall, 6' high, 1' 2" deep, and 2' wide, and these contain stone images of Buddha. Passing through the vaulted passage a gallery opens on either side. Each is 3' 7" wide and 9' high.
The gallery runs in an octagonal shape around the central chamber; each of the outer sides of the passage measures 20' and each contains a row of four niches with a semicircular arch 2' above the ground, and a second row of smaller niches at the height of 7, four to each side, and the niches hold stone images of Buddha. From the inner side of the gallery a vaulted passage leads from north, south, east, and west to the inner chamber, which is also octagonal in shape. At the center stands an eight-cornered stone pillar 40' in circumference. It supports the roof. Neither light nor air can 'penetrate into the shrine except through the front entrance. The roof is about ten feet thick. Over each of the eight corners of the shrine stands a smaller pagoda. At the center, there stands a large pagoda. Andaw Shrine constructed throughout with stone blocks, stands on a small square-shaped hillock. The hillock, including shrine and pagoda, measures 228 feet from east to west and 145 feet from north to south and 42 feet in height from ground to top.
The Ratanabon Pagoda
The pagoda was built by Minkhamaung and his chief queen Shin Htway in BE. 974 (A.D1612). The main edifice is circular at the base, measures 365 in circumference, and is constructed of huge blocks of sandstone; it rises in a number of concentric tiers, of which the upper portion recedes from the one lying beneath it, to a height of about 200 feet. The uppermost portion has fallen down. During the Second World War, a bomb hit the Ratanabon Pagoda, and a half of the main structure was damaged. There are no entrances, niches, arches, nor ornamentation of any kind, not even an image could be found. At a distance of eight feet from the central stupa rises a brick wall 4' high and 2' thick, which encompasses the pagoda in circle; then follows a row of 24 small circular pagodas built of brick. They are now all in ruin. This pagoda resembles a huge bell. The whole structure is enclosed by an octagonal wall 8-10' thick, with an entrance at the south. A lion made of sandstone protects each of the four corners of the outer pagoda walls.
The temple court is in ruin. The building is impressive by its massiveness.. Its architecture pattern resembles an ordinary pagoda, like Sanchi in India. But the bareness of decorative designs and the absence of structural ornamentations characterizes it as peculiarly Rakhine. Traditionally it is believed that the pagoda was built for the purpose of acquiring or securing treasures, both mundane and spiritual. (Ratana means "treasure", "bon" means to gather, to accumulate.)
The Dukkhanthein Pagoda
The temple stands on a hill, 30 feet high, having a flat surface like that of a drum. King Minphalaung built the pagoda in 1571 A.D. Like the Shitthaung and the Andaw shrines, Dukkhanthein was built of hewn sandstones and layers of bricks over the roof. It measures 190 feet from north to south and 200 feet from east to west. It is reached by stone stairways, 8' broad, situated on the east and south. These stairways measuring 106 feet are built of massive stonewalls on the north, east and south. The west one which is slightly convex is connected to an oblong chamber.
The pagoda entrance on the east side, closer to the south-east corner, leads to a long vaulted passage which spirals up in two tiers till it reaches the central chamber. The superstructure, a bell-shaped dome on receding terraces, is similar to the one on Shitthaung, but here a tall square arch is provided on the east side to admit light into the central chamber. The inner chambers and passages of the temple are constructed with well fitting and cemented stones. The pagoda is well-known for the stone sculptures in the vaulted passages, especially the figures of seated ladies, with different styles of coiffure, in the manner of offering lotus buds to the Buddha. Traditionally it is said that there are sixty-four kinds of hairstyle and all the figures are of the wives of noblemen. Besides, on both sides of the entire passage, niches of 1½ feet broad, 1 foot deep, and 2 feet high are dug at regular intervals of 20 feet in the wall and each contains a stone image of the Buddha in sitting posture. There are one hundred and forty-six niches along the passage.
The Laymyetnha Pagoda
About a distance of 150 feet to the northwest of the Dukkhanthein Pagoda is the Laymyetnha Pagoda or "the fourfacaded pagoda". King Minsawmon, the first king of Mrauk-U Dynasty, built it in 1430 A.D. It is one of the five pagodas built at the beginning of the establishment of the city. It is a square structure, with a long protruding portal towards each cardinal point. The interior room is octagonal. In the center of the latter there is an octahedral column intended to support the circular tower erected over the center of the roof. Over each of the four corners of the terrace a smaller circular stupa was built. Each side of the square of the shrine measures 55'; the portals are 13' broad and protrude 17' into the platform. The central tower is circular and has the shape of a dome, with a circumference of 80 feet at the base and is 70 feet high.
The Myatanzaung Pagodas
To the north of Laymyetnha Pagoda at a distance of 500 feet are Myatanzaung Pagodas. There are two pagodas named Eastern Myatanzaung and Western Myatanzaung. These pagodas are situated on a hillock, 40 feet high. The main structures of these pagodas are constructed of blocks of pure sandstone. But turrets, staircases and walls were built of bricks. Minsawmon, the King of Mrauk-U Dynasty, erected these pagodas in 1430 A.D. These two are of the same type, measuring 120 feet in circumference, and 50 feet high.
The Mokseik taw Pagoda
To the north of Myatanzaung and at a distance of 300 feet is the Mokseik taw Pagoda. It stands on a hillock, which rises to 100 feet. King Minsawmon erected the pagoda in 1430 A.D. According to the chronicles, Mokseiktaw is also one of the five-city settlement pagodas in the new city of Mrauk-U. There are two terraces on this hillock. A Pitakataik (Library) is situated on the lower terrace. The library is built of pure sandstone. Most of the monasteries and pagodas of Mrauk-U especially the large teaching monasteries and the pagodas donated by the kings usually had a library attached to them. The height of the main pagoda is 50 feet above ground and 100 feet in circumference at the base. The central pagoda is circular and has a bell shape. A small turret stands on each of the four corners. On the eastern side of the pagoda there is an image of a footprint of the Buddha, 34 inches long, on a large stone. The footprint is plain and the sole of footprint shows neither marks nor any lineaments by which chiromancy could interpret.
The Laungbanpyauk Pagoda
The Laungbanpyauk Pagoda stands at a distance of 500 feet to the Mokseiktaw.Minkhaungraza built the pagoda in 1525 A.D. Two walls surround it. The outer surface of the inner wall is decorated with fine designs and is formed by stones projecting an inch out of the wall; at the center of each is a rosette, containing eight colored clay tablets of red, yellow, blue, and green alternately, with a white center. The diameter of the ornament is 1' 8". An opening in the east and one from the west lead to a platform raised about 6 feet above the level of surrounding ground. The massive stone pagoda at the center is an octagonal pyramid; each side measures at the base 33 feet and rises in ever-receding tiers to a height of about 120 feet (at present only 75 feet remains.). On the first tier, at the middle of each of the eight sides, originally-stood a porch consisting of two square pillars forming the sides of the porch. Each niche contains an image of the Buddha. The outer surface of the appendage displays an exquisite pattern of carving in stone. The design is so fine and outstanding that well-known architects have recorded it in detail.
The Htuparyon Pagoda
According to the local records, King Minranaung, the sixth king of MraukU Dynasty, erected Htuparyon in 1494 A.D. In the year of 1613 A.D the King Minkhamaung and his chief queen, Shin Htway rebuilt this pagoda. The pagoda is built of stone blocks and the base is octagonal. A wall surrounds the spacious temple court, which is in disrepair. Each of the four corners of the pagoda walls is guarded by the figure of a lion having two bodies and a head. The walls are thought to be the walls of a square sima or of the ordination hall for Buddhist monks. At present, the pagoda is in ruin, and neglected. But, in the golden days of Mrauk-U the Htuparyon Pagoda was a well known site for pilgrimage. Most of the kings in Mrauk-U Dynasty came to pay respects to this pagoda soon after their coronations. Traditionally, it was believed by the kings that the site was "The Land of Victory and Prosperity", and was very highly venerated.
The Tharapavata Pagoda
The pagoda stands on this hill. A wall surrounds the pagoda, 134 feet long and 84 feet broad. The pagoda is built of massive stones. It is about 21 feet high, 54 feet broad at each of the four-sides of the base. The first tier contains the sculptures of lions, elephants and deer. The ruins of sima are found on the east side of the pagoda. A small standing Buddha made of stone, 5 feet high, is found on the ruined square Lima. The platform is scattered here and there with the ruins of pagodas, images, damaged pedestals, pillars and many other pieces. A few years ago, a standing image was found unexpectedly on the platform of the pagoda. An inscription in Sanskrit was found on the pedestal of the image. The script was dated, on paleographic grounds, to be between 4th and 8th centuries, A.D.
The Pitakataik
About one hundred yards to the northeast of Htuparyon Pagoda is the Pitakataik or the Library. The King Minphalaung donated it in 1591 A.D. The building had been used as a depository for the Buddhist scriptures and it measures 14 feet from the east to west, and 10 feet from north to south and 9 feet high. It is built entirely of stone. This Pitakataik is also known as Shinkite Pitakataik, (Shinkile means mosquito-bite) and is one of the forty-eight libraries in Mrauk-U capital. The entrance is an arched passage, which opens on the east. According to the Rakhine history, the Buddhist scriptures, the thirty sets of Tipitaka, which Narapati~yi (1638-1645 A.D) had received from Sri Lanka were deposited in this library.
One other interesting thing is the city wall, which is situated at fifty feet to the north of Pitakataik. It is a brick wall about 4 feet high and 2 feet thick. It runs from southeast to northwest across the bottom of the valley between the base of the eastern and western hill ranges. A few feet to the north of this wall is the Panzemraung moat which runs parallel the wall. This site, the wall and the moat, had been used as the last defense during the times 'of wars and at one time was the camping-ground of Rakhine main army.
The Pyisoegyi Pagoda
About 200 yards to the north of Pitakataik is Shinkite-wall. Close to the north stands another city-wall named Tharikonboung. Beyond it is the Panzemraung, a moat that stretches in a bowline from the northwest of the town to the northeast. On the opposite side, it is lined by two ranges of the hills, leaving a flat valley half a mile broad, filled with water throughout the year.
Further east, along the ridge about a few hundred yards away is the Pyisoegyi Pagoda. An old Pitakataik stands near the pagoda. This Pitakataik is similar to the Shinkite Pitakataik. It is also decorated with fine sculptures. A Pyisoegyi donated the pagoda and the pitakataik. The Rakhine royal term Pyisoegyi is equivalent in rank to a prime minister of the present time. A few hundred yards towards the end of the eastern range is Minthamitaga (or) Princess Watergate. The Watergate was made of solid stone. It measures 9 feet high, 30 feet long and 10 feet broad. Close to the south side of Minthami gate was once a swimming pool in which, in former times, the princesses spent the evenings gaily in their gilded royal boats. The pool was also used as a moat. In wartime, if it was necessary, the water gate could be opened quickly and filled the dry moat of the Tharikonboung with water.
The Anoma Pagoda
The Anoma Pagoda stands at a distance of 100, yards to the south of Pitakataik. Princess Anowzaw, daughter of King Salingathu (1494-1501 A.D), built this pagoda in the lovely valley in 1501 A.D. Today, the pagoda is badly ruined. According to the records, the base and the first four tiers are octagonal; the next four are square and the topmost is circular. The circumference of the pagoda at the base measures 160 feet, and it is devoid of any ornamentation. Only a Buddhist image, made of stone, and 9 feet high, remains. It is seated on a pedestal, which is ornamented with numerous sculptures depicting scenes from the Jatakas (mostly animals figures), each scene for each Jataka. A few yards to the southwest of Anoma Pagoda stands the Shwekyathein Pagoda. This pagoda is built of sandstone. On its upper terrace there are some very fine ornamentations consisting of lotus flowers.
The Minpaung Pagoda
The Minpaung Pagoda is situated on a small ridge fifty feet to the south of Anoma Pagoda. It is also called Alaiseti (central pagoda). Minkhamaung and his chief queen Shin Htway built it in 1640 A.D. The pagoda is enclosed in walls decorated with figures of dragons. At present, the pagoda has a height of 40 feet and 290 feet in circumference at the base. A passage leading to the central chamber is vaulted and curved, 7 feet long and 6 feet wide.
The Mahabodhi Shwegu
It is, like the Ratanabdn Pagoda, bell-shaped and octagonal from the base to the top. Each side measures at the base 13½ feet, (106 feet in circumference) and rises in ever-receding tiers to a height of about 30 feet. It is constructed with blocks of sandstone. An arched passage opens towards the east. Along the walls of inner side of the passages are decorated with stone sculptures depicting the 550 Jatakas of Buddha's life. These sculptures are like the mirrors of Rakhine's culture. The chamber contains an image of Buddha made of stone 6 feet high. Numerous stone sculptures (figures) around the pedestal are modeled in pure Rahkhine style.
The Ratanasanraway Pagoda
This pagoda is situated on the second range of Nattaung Hill. A few yards to the south of Mahabodhi Shwegu is the wall of the precinct of Ratanasanraway Pagoda. The pagoda was donated and built by King Basawphyu, the third -king of Mrauk-U Dynasty, in .1459 A.D. The wall measures 112 feet long, 88 feet broad and have a staircase and an entrance in the west. The pagoda is now in ruin. The upper portion of the main pagoda is circular, measuring 130 feet in circum-ference and 28 feet in height today. There is an entrance, an arched passage, on the east side of the pagoda. The chamber contains a seated Buddha image, 7 feet high. The pedestal is an octagonal structure of sandstone and was built of eight stages. Each stage is ornamented with numerous designs.
The Ratanamhankin Pagoda
The Ratanamhankin Pagoda stands on the third range of the same hill, Nattaung, about one hundred yards away to the south of the Ratanasanraway. The King Basawphyu in 1468 A.D, a year also erected the Ratanamhankin after the donation and erection of the Ratanasanraway. The pagoda is walled on three sides, north, south and west, with pure stones. The wall measures 150 feet long and 75 feet wide. Each side, except the eastern side, has a staircase. The pagoda was built entirely of sandstone. The dome was ruined. Today only 20 feet of it remains standing and it has a base of 80 feet-in circumferences. To enter the chamber there is a cave passage on the eastern side. The cave is decorated with very fine sculptures, such as birds, ogre, lotus and griffin. But most of the sculptures are now broken and the platform is covered here and there with the ruins of broken images, sculptures, damaged pedestals, pillars, etc. In the middle of all these ruins, in the central sector there lies a large image of seated Buddha in stone, 9 feet high.
The Ratanathinkha Pagoda
The Ratanathinkha Pagoda is situated on top of a small hillock named Galontaung (Galon-bird Mountain) at a distance of one hundred yards to the south of the Ratanamhankin. Hence, the pagoda is also called Galontaung Pagoda. Prince Mingyinyo erected the pagoda together with a stone pillar in 1581 A.D. He was a grandson of King Minbin, one of the most powerful kings in the Mrauk-U Dynasty. According to the inscription on the stone pillar of this pagoda, Mingyinyo's father was King Mintikha who reigned in Rakhine residing in the Mrauk-U Palace, from 1553 to 1555 A.D. The pagoda was constructed with sandstone. Eight turrets and small pagodas in bricks surround the central pagoda.
The Ratanamanaung Pagoda
The King Candathudhammaraza donated the pagoda in 1652 A.D. It is a solid stone structure, octagonal from the base to the top, and measures 344 feet in circumference at the base and 180 feet high. There are no niches, porches, opening, nor decorative designs on the main body of the structure. In the northwest corner of the enclosure is a lima, 54 feet long, 13 feet broad, and 10 feet high. The roof is vaulted and made of stone, but partly in ruins. There are a few other small shrines on the platform, but they are completely ruined. A few distances to the south of Ratanamanaung, facing the Ahiwankan moat, is the Zonedat Hill .The hill is about 150 feet high. It was so important a closed fortress for the palace that the king had appointed a chief commander to guard it.
The Mingalamanaung Pagoda
King Narapatigyi erected the pagoda in the years between 1638 and 1645 A.D. Other sources ascribe the pagoda as being built by the King Oakkabala in 1685 A.D before he died. The pagoda is an octagonal solid stone spire, without porches, niches, or ornamental works. The pagoda is very similar in shape to the Tezarama Pagoda. The ground of the pagoda is scattered with ruins of pagodas. On the south side of the stupa are four stone slabs one side of which is covered with Rakhine inscriptions. One of them is completely damaged; scripts on the other three are legible. According to the inscriptions, King Candavizaya, the 34th king of Mrauk-U Dynasty, set these up in the years between 1720 and 1722 A.D. In the inscription, the King described himself as" the great-great-grandson of Narapatigyi who erected the Mingalamanaung Pagoda."
The Nan-Oo Image
The Nan-Oo image stands at a distance of 100 yards to the southeast of the Mingalamanaung Pagoda. It is 7 feet a'hd 7 inches high and is a stone image. There are numerous stone sculptures around the pedestal. The image was donated by Natshinmai the chief queen of Thirithudhammaraza (1622-1638 A.D). The platform is scattered with ruined sculptures. Some of the broken sculptures are collected at the north of the entrance. About 150 yards to the southwest of the Nan-Oo image is an interesting city walling which is said to be an ancient type of security arrangement. It stretches about one thousand feet in length from east to west. The wall was built with blocks of sandstone and was connected to two small ranges. The wall also served as a protective barrier for the area between the two small ranges and was provided with artillery. This guarded the city against possible attacks from the northern side. An old stone-tower and a stone-gate are still in good condition in this walling.
The Sakyamanaung Pagoda
The Sakyamanaung is situated a half mile northeast of the palace-site, some distance away to the south of the Ratanamanaung Pagoda. The King Thirithudhammaraza who reigned in Mrauk-tJ in the years between 1622 and 1638 A.D built the pagoda in 1629 A.D.
The plan of the base of the pagoda is peculiar. The base consists of eight braces joined to form an irregular octagon, and the braces forming the side on the four cardinal points are wider than the intermediate ones. From the first tier upward the structure is octagonal; the sides over the four main braces form a straight line, and those over the intermediate braces assume a zigzag design. After the ninth tier the shape of the spire becomes circular and continues to be so up to the top.On each side of the second and third tier stands a niche, (or rather a porch) containing a sitting image of Buddha. The facade of the porch contains ornamental designs similar to those found at the Laungbanpyauk Pagoda.The pagoda is still in a fairly good state of preservation. It is 114 feet high. The enclosing stonewall is of simple construction and it has an opening in the east and west side. Two huge giants in kneeling posture guard the western gate. Twelve turrets were built in the platform, which surrounded the pagoda.
The Wuntinattaung
This is the oldest historical site in Mrauk-U. It is situated on a hill to the south of the Sakyamanaung Pagoda, at a distance of 400 yards to the east of the palace site. There are sculptures, which are all ruined. The platform is strewn with damaged stones, which at one time formed the parts of an ancient Nat shrine. According to the local records the shrine is related to the King Paiphyu, the son of Candadevi, who was chief queen in the era of Vesali (4th to 8th century A.D). He had built a palace on Gyettharetaung in Mrauk-U in 776 A.D. A few stone images and two inscriptions were found on the Palace ground and these are exhibited in the Mrauk-U Museum. An inscription which was partly defaced and a record were found there. The script describes the repairing of the shrine. According to the script, the King Minraza repaired the shrine in the year Sakkaraj 883 M.E. (1521 A.D). This inscription is one of the stone-scripts written in old Rakhine language. Another inscription is more interesting. It was found on Wuntinattaung Hill. The script and the general character of the inscription are remarkable in that it resembles the Pall inscriptions found at Sriksetra and which belonged to the 6th or 7th century A.D.
The Wuntinattaung inscription, therefore, serves as an important cultural link between Sriksetra and northern Rakhine, Mrauk-U. Then, there are some stone images; they are almost entirely damaged and most are defaced. One image shows Buddha sitting cross-legged, with the right hand on the right knee, the left resting on the lap, wearing long earings. Behind the head is a circular nimbus, backed by rings of aureole. This pattern stretches to the side of the body, in the manner of some Mahamuni sculptures of the 5th century A.D. Thus, it is considered quite possible that the Wuntinattaung in Mrauk-U had flourished in the eras between the 5th and the 9th century A.D like-other ancient Rakhine cities such as Vesali and Dhanyawaddy.
The Neikbuzar Pagodas
There are three pagodas on the hill. The southern pagoda is called the Auk-Neikbuzar (lowerNeikbuzar). It is bell-shaped. The prayer court contains a seated image of Buddha, 10 feet high. Two other images of nats belonging to the Vesali period, 4th to 8th century A.D, were situated in this court. It is possible that the Wuntinattaung and the Neikbuzar were simultaneously influenced by Vesali civilization. Climbing towards the range one can reach another pagoda called Ahlai Neikbuza (middle Neikbuzar Pagoda), which is in ruins.
The one called PanmaNeikbuza (main Neikbuzar Pagoda) is situated on the top of the same hill. The King Min Saw Oo built all Neikbuza Pagodas in 1527 A.D. A few steps to east of the main Neikbuzar Pagoda lies another group of the pagodas called Paranyinaung (brother pagodas) there are altogether eight pagodas, which are of different types. Close to the east of these pagodas is Miparagyigu (cave of chief queen), on top of a small hillock. In the main chamber of this cave, there is a sitting stone image of Buddha, about 10 feet high. The Queen Sawthandar, a chief queen of the King Mintaikkha, donated the image in 1553 A.D.
The Paraoke Pagoda
About half a mile to the east of palacesite, 200 yards to the southeast of the lower Neikbuzar Pagoda, is the Paraoke Pagoda. It stands on a small hillock about 50 feet high. The Paraoke Pagoda was erected by the King Minphalaung in 1571 A.D. The King was troubled by a disturbance in the whole of the country after he had built the Dukkhanthein Pagoda. Thus, on the advice of his seers and astrologers he donated this pagoda in order to prevent the disintegration of the union. He named this pagoda, "Paraoke", (Oke means to hold or control the whole country.). The uppermost portion of the pagoda has fallen down now. There remains only the lowest tire. The main pagoda is circular at the base, and is constructed of stone. Around the outer side, there are twenty nine niches each holding a4 sitting image of Buddha. The entrance, an arched passage, opens towards the east and connects the chamber which contains a seated stone image of Buddha, 12 feet and 5 inches high on a lotus throne.
The Minkhaungshwetu Pagoda
Close to the southern base of the Paraoak Pagoda Hill about two hundred yards away is the Minkhaungshwetu Pagoda. The pagoda is decorated with various fine sculptures. The erection of this pagoda is ascribed to Natshinmae, a chief queen ofKing Thirithudhammaraza, in 1629 A.D.
The Pisei Pagoda
Half a mile to the northeast of Minkaungshwetu is the four-sided Pisei Pagoda. It is situated on a small hillock of about 150 feet high. The pagoda has four porches in the west, east, north and the south sides. Each porch contains an image of Buddha made of sandstone, Mrauk-U style. The entrance of each side leads to an inner vaulted passage. In the center stands a stone pillar, which supports the roof and an image of Buddha above it. The style of the image belongs to the early Laymro period. Traditionally the shrine is said to have been built in 1123 A.D by the King Kawliya , a king of Parein Dynasty. The pagoda contains a relic of Buddha. The pagoda was repaired by the kings of Mrauk-U Dynasty. The pagoda was constructed entirely of stones and has been greatly revered by Buddhists.
The Koethaung Pagoda
To the north of the Pisei Hill at a distance of 400 yards is the Koethaung Pagoda. The pagoda stands on a plain and is surrounded by paddy fields. The upper tiers of the pagoda had disappeared. The remaining lowest tier is about 30 feet high including earth foundation. The King Mintaikkha who was the son of the King Minbin, the donor of the great Shitthaung Pagoda, built the Koethaung Pagoda in 1553 A.D. The word Koethaung means ninety thousand and thus the temple is supposed to contain ninety thousand Buddhas.
The pagoda is the biggest in size among the pagodas in Mrauk-U. It measures 230 feet from east to west and 250 feet from north to south. The Koethaung Pagoda is very similar to Shitthaung Pagoda, which his father had donated. They are of the same type from the historical and archaeological viewpoints. This tradition of donation of religious buildings by royal families came down from the royal ancestors. The pagoda was constructed of massive stonewalls and terraces. The small one hundred and eight pagodas, all made of sandstone, were built on the terraces. The entrance to the pagoda on the east side leads to a long vaulted passage which spirals round the tiers until it reaches the central chamber. The construction of the Koethaung Pagoda resembles a rock cave tunnel". The main tower above the pagoda is octagonal in shape. It is believed that there may be treasures of sculptures, artworks and even valuable jewelleries buried underneath the ruins. The platform is scattered here and there with vestiges of pagodas, images and many other such paraphernalia.
The legend says that the pagoda was demolished and hit by a thunderbolt because the King Mintaikkha built the Koethaung Pagoda (ninety thousand images), which exceeded in number to the images of his father (King Minbin's) Shitthaung Pagoda (eighty thousand images). It was unlikely. Really, the Pagoda, Koethaung was built in six months time by the advice of his astrologers. In building this pagoda, the workmen used both bricks and stones. Other pagodas were mostly built of pure sandstone, which had been carried, from the Rakhine-coasts. The six-month's time was not long enough to collect the required number of blocks of stone. As a consequence, Koethaung was inferior in quality in materials as well as in workmanship compared to Shitthaung Pagoda.
The Udawsaykan
Four hundred yards to the northeast of the Koethaung Pagoda is Udawsaykan (royal head-washing tank). It is a large tank, 200 yards from north to south, 100 yards from east to west. Traditionally, the kings of Mrauk-U Dynasty celebrated their head-washing ceremony.
Kyaunglaidon Fortress
About two miles to the east, and northeast of palace-site, a half-mile to the east of the Mrauk Myinmoenan, is a fortress named Kyaunglaidon. It was built of stone on the eastern slope of the tiger-ridge. The tiger-ridge was used as one of the outer city walling and is situated on the east of the Mrauk-U City. The ridge runs from north to south. The tiger-ridge runs parallel to the Lemro River and its valley. Thus, the Kyaunglaidon is a very important fortress for the city.
The Theingyishwegu
The Theingyishwegu is a well-known cave of the great nine-cave-temple in Mrauk-U. It is situated in a small hillock, 30 feet high, about one mile away to the southeast of the palace. At that site the King Minbin erected " the Theingyishwegu sima (ordination hall) in 1532 A.D. The whole hillock was made a sima', and huge stone pillars were erected around it to mark the boundary of the sima. It is considered the most attractive sima in Mrauk-U. At present, the huge, sima'pillars and other vestiges remain standing, indicating that the site had once been a land of religious sanctuary. The upper portion of the cave is damaged; only 12 feet high stone image of Buddha remains.
The Nyimadaw Pagoda
A few yards south of the Theingyishwegu up a small hill stands the Nyimadaw Pagoda. It was built by a princess Sawthuba (apmokb), a daughter of the King" Sinpyushin (qifjzL&Sif) (14821492 A.D). The sculptures around the throne are decorated with very attractive designs. Among them a familiar design is a man playing a harp. The donor, the Princess Sawthuba was the younger sister of Sawnanminpyu. The pagoda, donated by Sawthuba, was therefore, Sawthubapara or the Nyimadaw Pagoda.
The Shwetaung Pagoda
The Shwetaung Pagoda (Golden Hill Pagoda) stands on top of a small hill, 250 feet high. The hill is the highest one in the Mruak-U area. It can be seen even from a distance of 20 miles if viewed from out of the Kaladan River. The pagoda stands a half-mile away to the southeast east of the palace-site. The building of the Shwetaung Pagoda was ascribed to King Minbin. It was built between the years 1531 A.D and 1553 A.D. Later donors including kings and present inhabitants repaired it. During the first Anglo-Myanmar War, the Myanmar had built some earthen-fortifications, mounted guns on them and inflicted some losses upon the British forces. A few portions of these earthworks can be seen there still standing.
The Wathaie Image
At the same distance about five hundred yards to the south of the palace site, to the north of the Letsekan Lake is the great image, Wathaie Para. It was made of a large single stone and is the largest image in Mrauk-U. It measures 13 feet in height, excluding the throne and 8 feet from knee to knee. The whole of the body was gilded by the donations of the villagers. The King Tazarta erected this image in 1515 A.D. In 1531 A.D Minbin became the King of Mrauk-U. Before the King set out on a military operation to Bengal, because of the prophecy, he had taken good care of this image. The shrine, which shelters the image, was constructed entirely of stone and was mounted by a new hti. Today, the shrine is in ruin. The image is fairly well preserved by the donors.
The Pankonthein
A huge seated Buddha image, 11 feet high faces the entrance. There is a two-line inscription on the front of the seat of the image. This script is the oldest one found in Mrauk-U. The script is extremely important for the dating of the image and it belonged to the Laymyo period, which extended to the period from 10th to 14th century A.D. At one time the image was situated on the top of the Sandantaung hillock and carried over to the present site from the old city of Launggret by Minhlaraza. It was originally called "Sutawpan Image".
The Jinamanaung Pagoda
This pagoda stands on a low steep hillock named Panhteintaung , half a mile to the south of the palace, was donated by the King Candathudhammaraza in 1658 A.D. He was the 22nd king of the MraukU Dynasty and reigned for twenty-two years from 1652 to 1674 A.D. He was one of the longest reigning kings in the Mrauk-U Dynasty. The name means,"the Buddha who overcame the devil." The pagoda is a solid stone structure, octagonal from base to top, and measures 320 feet around the base and 120 feet in height. In the east is a porch, which leads to a chamber occupying the center of the pagoda. There is seated a bronze image of Buddha in the chamber. Someone took the image made of bronze, away during the first Anglo-Myanmar War. There is another seated image in the chamber. The ceiling is vaulted. The facade of the porch exhibits some -good carving in stone. A double bodied, single-headed lion guards each of the eight corners of the pagoda.
The Shwekyathein
To the west of the palace-site are also numerous pagodas, most of them in ruin; the terrain is intersected by many small creeks. An old monastery named Lakkaukzi Kyaung is situated 400 yards away to the west of the palace-site. There are some ancient images and historical documents in this monastery. To the west of this monastery is a stone gate named Mauktawtaga ,still in good condition. It measures 15 feet high, 9 feet broad and 15 feet long. Nearby, to the west of the gate was an old palace-site. It was situated on a platform, 4 feet high. The palace was built by the King Minsawmon (1430-32 A.D) in honour of a queen, named Mauktaw. About 40 years later, a daughter was born to the King Basawphyu (1459-1482 A.D) on this palace - site and she was named Princess Sawshwekya. The princess donated in 1471 AD a pagoda containing images and a sima. The sima deserves mention for its stone carvings on the facade of the pagoda. It is a small square structure of stone, measuring 18 feet from east to west and 15 feet from north to south. As the roof had fallen down, only 16 feet of the wall remains today. To the east there protrudes a porch, 15 feet long, 14 feet high, with an arched passage (14' long, 4'2" wide, and 10' high), which leads to an image room, 13' by 10' 8". On the west side of the chamber is a large stone image of the Buddha, 8 feet and 8 inches, sitting cross-legged on a roughly hewn stone altar. The facade of the porch is cut into ornamental designs; a pillar, so rare in Rakhine, was found here.
The Lokamanaung Pagoda
This pagoda was also built by Candathudhammaraza (16521674 A.D) in 1658 A.D. It stands on a flat ground. The shrine was constructed with stone blocks, well hewn and cemented. It is square at the base, each side measuring 74 feet; the first four tiers are also square; in the center of each side of the tiers stands a porch containing an image of the Buddha. The sides of the porch are made of stone slabs; the architectural design is similar to that of the Laungbanpyauk Pagoda. There are traces of ornamental designs on the face of the porches. A guinea pig guards each corner of the lowest tier.
On each corner of the first four tiers stands a small circular pagoda, solid and without niches. From the garbha upward the central spire is circular; the apex is crowned with an iron hti (umbrella) once gilded and still in good order. The east facade of the pagoda has a portal 20' high, protruding 2' from the main wall, a vaulted passage 4' 8" wide, 16' high, and 29' long leads to a chamber in the center of the pagoda. It contains a stone image of the Buddha 12 feet high, sitting cross-legged on a stone alter. The ceiling is a hemispherical dome and the apex is 16 feet above ground. The pagoda has a wall measuring 300 feet around the base and 100 feet high.The old roads to Vesali and Mahamuni begin here. These roads are still known as the gold road and the silver road.
The Parabaw Pagoda
Across the Parabaw creek, there is a large and very interesting pagoda named Parabaw. It stands on the bank of a small tidal creek. The King Minrazagyi, the most powerful king of Mrauk-U Dynasty, built the pagoda in 1603 A.D for the occasion of the birth of his new daughter, who was born at the same time in the same year. The princess was named Panthanda (coral flower) and she was declared the donor of this Parabaw Pagoda. It was constructed with bricks; the base is square; the walls stand perpendicular to a height of 20 feet. There are four tiers one above the other. A circular dome-shaped garba and then a succession of twelve concentric bell shaped rings gradually taper off until they reach to a point. At the north, east and south sides, there are protruding portals and there is also a passage with a pointed arch, which leads to a central room. There is a throne built in the west wall of the chamber and on it is seated a large stone image of the Buddha, 12 feet and 3 inches high. This image of the Buddha is very similar in type to the Mahamuni.
The Palace Site
Before visiting any other place in Mrauk U priority should be given to the ruins of the inner palace city where the Royal palace once stood magnificently. The place is surrounded by three wall encirclements. When Mong Saw Mon started buildings the palace, underground canals were first dug, then stone walls were erected and finally the three hills were leveled down. Some of the canals that carried off the water to the Thinghanadi creek to the south of the palace can still be found. The area of the whole palace was 1.2 square miles and the walls were originally made of brick. King Mong Ba Gree reinforced the palace walls with a new structure of stone in 1531. The high of the walls to day averages 12ft and thickness runs about 7ft. Three sites of the palace are guarded with moats.
Laksaykan Lake
Lying side by side with Anuma Lakey south-west of Zina Banaung Pagada is the Laksaykan Lake. This scenic lake is about 100 acres wide and its embankment connecting the two hill ranges has two 12ft high gates. The western gate, know as Laksaykan gate is 24ft long, 17ft high and 8ft wide. In case of an enemy raid from the south of the palace, this gate was to be used flood the lower plains in the north to defer the enemy.The artificial, man-made lakes named Anomakan and Letsekan on the southern part of Mrauk-U were once part of the defence system. They are now peaceful havens for visitors as well as for the local people, and for animals, birds and fish. Letsekan is (3) miles in length and half a mile wide. Some of the old city walls can also be seen.
BAUNG DWET VILLAGE, about 5 km south of Mrauk-U and explore the ruined DUTCH TRADE CENTRE. The old jetty was at Baung Dwet where once the ships harboured and trading centres both of local and international origin flourished at this area. The jetty was always lively with foreign merchants.
MAHAMUNI SHRINE : (DYANNYAWADI-Kyauktaw)
According to Rakhine chronicles, Lord Buddha in his life time visited the city of Dhannyawadi (Grain Blessed) in 554 B.C. The Rakhine king Sandar Suriya (Candrasuriya-Sun Moon) requested Lord Buddha to leave the image of Himself. This Buddhist shrine is one of the most revered sites in the whole country as the Maha Muni Buddha Image is believed to have been cast in bronze and five kinds of precious metals by Sakka or Indra the Lord of the Celestial Realm.After casting the Great Image Maha Muni (Great Sage) Lord Buddha breathed upon it which resembled the exact likness of the Blessed One. Maha Muni was worshipped by Rakhine kings for centuries and regarded as a protector of the country. In 1784 A.D , Rakhineland was conquered by king Bodaw Paya and the Great Image was carried across the Rakhine Yoma to Amarapura (now Mandalay).
In the main shrine on the topmost level are three very old stone images of Buddha. The central image four feet, two inches high is known as Maha Muni's brother. The shrine is a peaceful, quiet place about 10 km east of Kyauktaw town and about 40 km north of Mrauk U. It is on a small hillock called Sirigutta surrounded by three low walls on three successive terraces, the main shrine built on the highest platform. On the lowest platform is an old library built by king Minkhari in AD 1439; it is a rare example of a library from this early period Also a large tank dug by king Sandasuriya can be seen in the vicinity. In the year 1900, a rich man from Akyab (Sittwe), U Rai Kyaw Thu cast an image and installed it at the former place of the Great Image. Up to this day, Maha Muni site has become the most venerated site in Myanmar and the former glory has again been restored due to the new highway linking Yangon and Sittwe. Mahamuni Site now can be reached by car either from Sittwe or Mrauk U. Throughout the year, pilgrams flocked to visit from all parts of Rakhine State as well as devotees from different parts of Myanmar. There is a small museum near the shrine which displays some oldest stone sculptures in Myanmar. The Maharmuni festival falls in the month of Tabaung (March).
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